SPIRITUAL  INTELLIGENCE FOR LEADERS. TOWARD A PARADIGM SHIFT IN           ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN AFRICAN CONTEXT.

 

BY PITSHOU MOLEKA BASIKABIO

 

SUBMITTED TO NORTHWESTERN CHISTIAN UNIVERSITY TOWARD THE FULFILLMENENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP IN (MARCH 2021)

 

 

 

 

                             

 

     SUPERVISOR: HOWARD MARKELA, PhD, ThD, D.D    

 

 

 

 

 

                                                                                                                                                                                 

 

               

Everyone who is seriously involved in the pursuit of science becomes convinced that a spirit is manifest in the laws of the Universe-a spirit vastly superior to that of man, and one in the face of which we with our modest powers must feel humble.

 Albert Einstein (yahoo.com)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Acknowledgments

In this context when the entire globe is paralyzed economically by the pandemic of corona virus, the Lord Jesus gave me the strength to fulfill a dream and receive the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in organizational leadership. I did it by grace and all I can say is: “soli Deo Gloria”.

I want to thank Prof Howard M. Sarkela, Ph.D., Th.D., D.D. for the supervision of this doctoral dissertation and all the staff of Northwestern Christian University ( Dr Samuel Galloza and Dr Yolanda Rivera) for all the materials.

Thanks also to brothers and sisters who assist me in any way, they are so numerous. Let the God Almighty bless them.

Finally, I want to kiss my wife Julienne Mujinga, my two daughters Shekinah Moleka and Elyon Moleka for the atmosphere of love, without forgetting my mother and my brothers and sisters.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION 

 

 

The world finds itself in a particular context where changes of all kinds are

 

taking place in organizations and oblige the leaders of public or private

 

organizations to make a paradigm shift. 

 

To be more effective and more competitive, leaders must adapt to the

 

movement of history and develop new tools and capacities because

 

knowledge and experience show their limits.

 

According to the great thinker Peter Drucker, a great mind contributing

 

by his writings in field of organizational leadership and management quoted:

 

“We are in one of those great historical periods that occur every

 

200 or 300 years when people don't understand the world anymore, and

 

the past is not sufficient to explain the future” (Cora, M., &  Gunnlaugson,  

 

O., 2015).

 

 

 

Another giant Warren Bennis abounds in the same direction showing that

 

in the last 25 years, the organizational landscape has transformed

 

radically. Thus organizational leaders and their followers are in a new

 

postindustrial organizational era, that is called ‘‘wholesale

 

transformation’’ (Wiley, J., & Sons,  2012).

 

 

At the level of political leadership, many leaders abuse power

 

with harmful consequences for the people. Because they use a style or a

 

bad model of leadership. Elisabeth Cornelius (2019) talks about Josef

 

Mengele, a military doctor nicknamed “angel of death” because of his

 

abuses. He operated on someone's kidney during Auschwitz without

 

anesthesia just to see how he will react to the pain that would follow,

 

and he had to commit other atrocities, especially among the Jews. 

 

 Lavrenti Beria, a Russian politician who kidnapped and abused

 

women during World War II. Caligula, a Roman emperor (37-41 AD) could

 

gather crowds of condemned  at the Coliseum and let wild beasts devour them.  

 

Nero, another Roman emperor (54 -68 AD) had to kill his own mother, his

 

first and his second wife. The list could be extended with Saddam Hussein,

 

Mobutu, Jean Bedel Bokassa, and Adolph Hitler…

 

 

 

The Greeks warned their city's policies against hubris, that is to say, pride

 

or excess, or the madness of grandeur that happens when the ego

 

experiences inflation, manifested in particular by greed.

 

 

In Democratic Republic of Congo, the country is sick of its politicians to

 

borrow the words of Kabuya Kabamba in his book: “La rd Congo malade

 

de ses politiciens” (2006). At the level of governance, corruption is established as

 

norms and yet it is the academics that have been in charge

 

since its independence. 

 

 

How many graduates, people with masters or PhD degree have managed

 

political institutions but what are the results?

 

To cite only the period 2000-2016, 48% of Congolese ministers studied

 

abroad, it means in good condition;  56% of them have a bachelor's degree

 

and the majority is either in law or in economics, two sciences where one

 

learns to manage; 13% have the master's level and 23% have a doctorate

 

degree (Kodila, T. ,  et al. ,  2020). 

 But why they are not able to impact this country where populations are very

 

poor in a country which is full of natural resources?  Why elites supposed to be

 

models are found in practice like corruption, theft and embezzlement ?   And

 

yet most of these leaders are Christians and some of them pastors or priests ?

 

What leadership model do they have and practice?  

 

 

To take just one case, the observatory of the code of professional ethics

 

carried out an investigation of thirty public institutions related to

 

corruption and in its results published in 2006, the presidency of the

 

Republic including the 1 + 4, was the institution most affected by corruption,

 

followed by justice and customs (Muzong, K. , 2008). 

                           

Why these elites of power, knowledge, finances and elites of religion (pastors, 

 

priests, bishops…) do not work and do not consider the best interests of the nation

 

but favorite their selfish interests?

 

 

For corporate (SMEs or large companies), at first glance the world of spirituality and

 

the corporate sphere do not seem to go together because on the one hand there is the

 

philosophical quest for the meaning of its existence, its mission, and on the other

 

hand the increased search for gain or profit sometimes in defiance of moral or ethical

 

or even spiritual standards. Spirituality is concerned with being while the company is

 

concerned with having (material possession). 

 

 

How then explain the rapprochement observed recently where big bosses are starting

 

to do meditation and encourage their employees and employees to do the same?  

 

 

According to Romain Cristofini (2019), the different paradigms that have been

 

inherited from the past century no longer hold and in each company it is necessary to

 

show creativity and capacity for reinvention. There are the symptoms which attest a

 

deficit at the level of organizations such as the lack of motivation of employees, the

 

case of stress and psychosocial risks ... but also the arrival of NICTs and with their

 

use of technological breakthroughs are visible, whose impact on the work will be

 

major in the field for example the artificial intelligence, the robotization, the

 

blockchain which question the old model of companies. 

 

And Romain Cristofini shows four developments that any leader is supposed to face:  

 

- The end of pyramidal and hierarchical paradigms in organizations with its

 

manifestations of more power and control, centralization of decisions to give way

 

to more participatory and more collaborative models.         

 

-The need to unleash the full potential of workers who are feeling more and more

 

the need to be fulfilled in their work as a mission, not just as a means of survival

 

or bullshit job.

    

- The imperative for companies to take into account their social responsibility (CSR)

 

for more sustainable development in society and not only economic viability.

 

-The ineffectiveness of simply taking into account the rationality side to

 

manage and plan the future of one's company with the unforeseen crises

 

which occur, in particular the most recent of covid 19, for example, which has

 

upset all forecasts and all business plans.

 

 

Hence the need for a new approach or paradigm and understanding of human

 

spirituality for African leaders for the holistic transformation of leaders and the

 

community.

 

 

 

1.       Literature review

 

 

 Barbara B. Howard, Precious Guramatunhu-Mudiwa and Stephen R.     

 

(2009) wrote: “spiritual intelligence and transformational leadership: a

 

new theoretical” with purpose to show the link between spiritual

 

intelligence and transformational leadership in the field of higher

 

education. According to them, in field of educational psychology, many

 

publications are increasing to show the place of spirituality in opposition

 

of scientific positivism in educational field.

 

Michael Watson, Matthew Kuofie and Richard Dool (2018) studied the

 

spiritual intelligence of leaders and its impact into employee engagement.

 

Cindy Wigglesworth (2006) studied the necessity of spiritual intelligence

 

so that we have mature leadership in global context.  Muhammad

 

Shaukat Malik and Sana Tariq (2016) demonstrated the impact of

 

spiritual intelligence in performance of organizations and the creation of

 

new environment characterized by unity, strong relation and the feeling of

 

satisfaction.

 

Isfahani A.N and Nobakht H. (2013) analyzed the impact of spiritual

 

intelligence on organizational leadership of petroleum and had noted   a

 

positive role as feeling of happiness. Shen and Chen (2012) studied how organizations

 

can grow by implementation of spiritual intelligence.

 

Torabi M and Javadi S. (2013) have studied the effect spiritual intelligence

 

can bring on job engagement.

 

Rani A, Ghani A.A and Ahmed, S. (2013) studied the role of spiritual

 

intelligence in reducing stress in employee of organization in Malaysia.   

 

In other side, Javaheri H., Safarnia H. and Mollahosseini A. (2013), showed

 

the correlation between service quality and spiritual intelligence.

 

Geigle  D (2012) searching to make a literature review in the connection with spirituality and organizations showed a growing interest in this notion, quoting the study of Oswick (2009), Karakas (2009), Covey (2011). Then spiritual constructs need to be better defined in the context of organizational behavior, organizational leadership and development for a new leadership paradigm.

 

Elisabeth Cornelius (2019) claims that many scholars debate the issue of spiritual

 

intelligence like Emmons (2000), Mayer (2000) , George (2006), Tipping (2006) and

 

Scott (2017) to find its validity as intelligence. His approach was epistemological.

 

 

All the authors above show the necessity of spirituality or spiritual intelligence in the field

 

of leadership in organizations and its impact among workers or followers. But most are in

 

a pluralistic perspective, mixing all kinds of values, religions and spirituality particularly

 

Eastern religions such as Buddhism.

 

 

The necessity of new paradigm integrating spirituality because of limitations proved by

 

scientific rationality and other fields was defended more years before by Hans Kung in

 

the context of ecumenism and holistic view inspired by Thomas Kuhn with his “structure

 

of scientific revolutions” showing that normal science proceeds by a destructive-

 

constructive where old paradigms are replaced by new paradigms in kind of revolutions

 

(2012: 66).

 

As historian, Kuhn illustrated many examples of paradigm shifts beginning from

 

geocentricism to heliocentric, from Newtonian to Einstein’s physics with theory of

 

relativity.... (Leonard Swidler, nd).

 

 Hans Kung showed that occidental science without wisdom, western technology lacking

 

spirituality with invention of atomic bomb for example for massive destruction, western

 

democracy without morality working against popular mass because imprisoned by an

 

elite required a shift (2004).

 

 

After many coup d’etat in African countries, the Congolese philosopher Ngoma Binda

 

proposed in doctoral thesis that intellectual elites must be engaged in political affairs to

 

bring rationality in the management of the respublica (1985) but the limit of rationality

 

is demonstrated  and  Herbert Simon (1995) showed it to take decisions and the need to

 

integrate other dimensions in leadership.

 

 

 

With this society of information all change even the strategy of nations in politics and

 

war mobilize new shift (Toffler, A., 1980; 1990). The need of shift for more peace among

 

all people in the world with religions playing a great role because some years ago the

 

great American politics scientist Samuel in his “The Clash of Civilizations”

 

(1993) defended the idea that next global conflicts will be caused by civilizations and

 

religions.  These violence and acts of irrationality are what Francis Fukuyama qualifies

 

as “The End of History” (2006).                                                                                              

 

David Bosch in his side made a proposal for shifts in church mission (1991).

 

Shift from Newtonian physics to the quantum discoveries by Max Planck bring a kind of

 

integration between science and spirituality and considering the universe such as  an

 

interconnected system , a kind of machine learning.

 

 

Hence the need for a new approach or understanding of human spirituality and the

 

relationships of social existence that we call spiritual intelligence for leaders in

 

order to increasingly consider the ethical aspects, the interest of all in their

 

respective organizations and communities, but also go into depth on the

 

meaning of each person's mission as a leader and not be based only on

 

material values.

 

 

 

 

2.      Delimitation of the subject

 

 

The subject concerns all African organizational leadership with a case study

 

for the democratic Republic of Congo.

 

 

3.      Interest and purpose of the study 

 

Saravanja and Williams (2009) argue that the current context of

 

organizations requires an extraordinary leadership as the traditional

 

model has reached its limits and leaders must turn to another paradigm:

 

spiritual intelligence. 

 

 

This book aim is to understand the lack of real impact of

 

African organizational leadership, and show the need, the importance, the

 

advantages of spiritual intelligence in leadership of organizations (political ,

 

social , economic, academic ...) and its spillover effects. Then lay the groundwork for

 

a new paradigm of leadership based on a transforming spirituality of man, his

 

community and his environment in African context.

 

 

4.     Research question

 

Why do not leaders who are majority adherents of some form of Christianity not

 

have the expected impact on their respective organizations?

 

 

 

5.      Hypothesis

 

-The lack of impact expected in African organizational leadership would be

 

due among other things to the lack of adequate training (leadership development).

 

The training  model received being based mainly on rationality and not adapted to

 

African realities or context  with all its limits.

 

-The lack of a true spiritual conversion with its multidimensional and

 

multilevel  transformations.

 

 

6.     Methodology

 

It is a qualitative methodology, a comprehensive epistemology or an

 

interpretative paradigm will be used. I am in the line of Wlilhelm Dilthey who

 

made a distinction between comprehension and explanation, followed by

 

many others such as Max Weber dealing with meaning, subjectivity and not

 

only facts and data.

 

- The action research with Kurt Lewin will be used to show also my intervention and

implication in the process of transforming reality, and not being only a neutral

observer.

- The systemic method will be useful to understand all the African context and

condition.

-The analytical process for applied education both used in teaching and learning

developed par Howard Sarkela, founder of Northwestern Christian University since

1980 as a contemporary process for learning and applying

knowledge. This process study involves the inductive method. In this comprehensive

approach, the researcher question himself how to apply the knowledge for himself

and for the others.

As techniques, focus group , cases study and documentary techniques are used.

7.   Outline

 

This dissertation is made up of two great parts. The first part has three

 

chapters dealing with spiritual intelligence and its impact in leadership. The second

 

part analyses and explains the lack of impact in organizational leadership in Africa,

 

and put some milestones for paradigm shift.

 

The first chapter deals with the epistemology of leadership, describing main leadership theories, their assumption and limitations, the philosophical and  biological basis of leadership and some problematic  of leadership. 

 

The second develops the notion of intelligence based mainly on Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences and afterwards gives an attempt to define the concept of spiritual intelligence, explains also some biblical terms related to the notion of intelligence and the third chapter shows the cases of men having worked with spiritual intelligence, and some empirical studies to show its impact in some organizations. 

 

 

The fourth chapter analyzes the notion of conversion in its multidimensional level as

 

a key factor for efficiency and impact in organizational of leadership in Africa

 

context.

 

The fifth chapter concerns the development of leadership and finishes with a draft

 

project for a leadership school for the holistic transformation.

 

The six chapter and the last put some milestones for organizational spiritual

 

leadership in Africa.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIRST PART: IMPACT OF SPIRITUAL  INTELLIGENCE IN ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER One:  LEADERSHIP PARADIGMS  

 

 

The first part of this dissertation is composed of three chapters and the first one is about leadership

paradigms.

In this chapter we talk about definition of leadership, different theories or models in the field of leadership and their assumptions and the notion of change in organization.

Leadership falls within the scope of what is called “Organization Behavior” which seeks to understand the impact of individuals,    but also of groups and structures on the behaviors of the actors of a given organization to improve its performance or its effectiveness                                                  

(Plane, JM , 2015). It takes knowledge in psychology focused on the individual, sociopsychology focused to understand reciprocal influence between people, anthropology to understand values, culture in organizations.                             

But what is leadership?

 

A.                Definition of leadership

 

Harold Koontz and Heinz Weirich globally recognized authorities in leadership and management in their book “Essentials of management” (2008) define leadership as the process of influencing people to accomplish their group goals with enthusiasm.   

It is therefore a matter of persuading and motivating them to do so. By this, we understand that we must ignore coercion in the way of influencing.

 

Leadership implies the existence of people to be influenced (followers), without individuals there is no leadership. And influence assumes some kind of power and authority.

 

In German, there are two ideas about it : « Zielorientierung » the direction to follow for  reaching the  goals  and « Beeinflussung von Verhalten » meaning the act of influencing behaviors (Kilongo, F.,  2015).

 

 To this end, it should be emphasized that there is a legal leadership which is an authority officially recognized by its statute which can make use of positive or negative sanctions that Max Weber name bureaucratic or legal leader, and the de facto leadership that Weber appoints unofficial or charismatic leader but whose influence comes either from his personality, his exceptional or divine qualities, his project, his skills (1968).

 

Gary Yukl showed in Impression management that not only leaders have influence, followers or workers have also influence.

The first tactic is: Exemplification. This tactic involves behavior intended to demonstrate dedication and loyalty to the mission, to the organization, or to followers or peers. Exemplification tactics used to influence bosses include arriving early and staying late to work extra hours, demonstrating effective behavior when you know the person is watching, and doing voluntary tasks that are highly visible.

 

Ingratiation is the second  tactic which involves behavior intended to influence the target person to like the agent and perceive the agent as someone who has desirable social qualities.

In this level behavior can take many different forms. Some examples include providing praise, agreeing with the target person’s opinions, showing appreciation for the target’s accomplishments, laughing at the target’s jokes, showing an interest in the target’s personal life, and showing deference and respect for the target person.

 

The third tactic is Self-Promotion. This tactic involves behavior intended to influence favorable impressions about your competence and value to the organization. The behavior may take the form of informing people about your achievements and talking about your skills. A more subtle form of self-promotion is to display diplomas, awards, and trophies in one’s office or workspace for others to see. An indirect form of self-promotion that is similar to a coalition tactic is to get other people to talk about your skills and loyalty (Yukl,  2013: 232).

 

All this means that the influence is not unidirectional. But leadership influence is permanent and has more impact.

 

In organization we can say with sociologist Talcott Parsons that there is a “common belongingness in a Gemeinschaft type of solidarity is the primary basis of mutual influence, and is for influence systems the equivalent of gold for monetary and force for power systems” ( 1963: 49 ).                                               

Morin (1996) distinguished different kinds of power influence at the organizational level:  

- Standardization which is the development of standards to regulate an organization or any structure and this is communicated through exchanges.

- Conformity or the fact for  members of a group to obey authority and by ceding part of their responsibilities to the leader.

- Innovation or modification of standards which in some cases leads to the rejection of the leader.

 

B. Philosophical basis

Jeremy Horne (2020) notes such a fascination there matter of leadership. By lack of a profound philosophical questioning, he searches to respond to the answer of origins and the foundation of leadership.

In every society there is a kind of hierarchy, and its absence gives birth to anarchy, a situation denoting a community or an organization without what is called in ancient Greek “arche”: the sovereignty, the magistracy, the act of ruling.

According to this author, there is anarchy where all decision is based on consensus; another kind of anarchy which is destructive is when there is fight for positioning oneself and everyone looks for predominance. Instead of consensus, some give up their independence and a hierarchy can begin. It can be by a contact.

Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) the great thinker in the “Leviathan” shows that people once lived in a state of nature. However, they realized that they could not keep on doing what they were doing at any time they wanted to. They had to agree to give up this freedom, or independence. In exchange, they received security and didn't have to spend all their time defending themselves. Hobbes states that people come together from a state of nature, giving up all their freedom to a sovereign.

But when people look for to give their freedom in exchange of a contract, they become subjects of the powerful Leviathan.

In his side Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) in his classical book “The Social Contract” said that men in context of state of nature with all consequences , they have no choice  preserving human species only the creating an  aggregation, a sum of forces great enough to overcome the resistance.

Aristotle in his “Politics” takes a different approach to who should be a leader. While he affirms the notion of virtue and the paramount of philosophy, he also states that educated people can make decisions about what should happen in society. Furthermore, there should be a strong middle class.

 

C. Biological foundation

Jeremy Horne (2020) tries to answer the question of who we qualify as leaders. Just as epistemological questions sought to know if politics could be considered as systematized knowledge and therefore a science, many also wonder if leadership is one.                            David Easton’s document: "A Systems Analysis of Political Life" notes that it is possible with a quantitative methodology to identify the different systems and to make their quantification for explanation.                                                                                

Walter Buckley and Anatol Rapoport have done a remarkable job on behavior sciences. With scientific advances in neurophysiology, it is proven that it is possible to discern a person's thought pattern from the study of their brain.Studies of neurons allow us to understand the behavior of certain dictators, arsonists and psychopaths.Cognitive science studies also show that the brains of people who are conservative have tonsils bigger than the brains of people who are more liberal. The amygdala playing an important role in controlling fear and other negative emotions.The structure of the brain also determines certain political orientations in young adults such as the dopamine receptor gene, DRD4-R7, associated with novelty and innovation.

In 1960 W. Ross Ashby in his Design for a Brain talked of his homeostat, a self-regulating mechanism, and this was drawn upon for systems theory. Walter Buckley and Anatol Rapoport, two major systems theorists of the 1960s included Ashby in their 1968 seminal work Modern Systems search for the behavioral Scientist.

Neurophysiology has made great strides in last decade or so, and there is emerging evidence that we can discern the mode a person thinks in by examining the brain. Research is progressing that indicates that the psychopathic mind has neural correlates.

                                  

D. Some theories in leadership and their assumptions 

 

Among the theories of Leadership, there is what is called “great man theory”,  elaborated by Thomas Carlyle with two assumptions. In 1840, Carlyle delivered six public lectures about the

historic role of heroes and brought them together in a book entitled: “On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History”, where he explained the Great Man theory.

 First great man theory postulating that leadership is innate and not acquired or developed. Some men are born with leadership traits, their features are intelligence,

wisdom, political skill and are often born in a certain aristocracy. Being of a high social class and of a given gender therefore men more than women. It is they who make the history of humanity and its organizations. We cite the example of the creators of religions like Moses, musical geniuses like Mozart or Beethoven, political leaders like Julius Caesar, Napoleon Bonaparte and his role in French revolution ( Bernstein, 2020)... 

 

The German philosopher Nietzsche spoke of a superman, being above what is prescribed as moral. But if man takes God's place, the disastrous results are known in advance.                       

 

The second assumption is that these kinds of leaders appear when there is necessity,

most of time in context of crisis.

In the same line American philosopher Sidney Hook makes a distinction between eventful man and eventful making man. The second change history but the first

perpetrate program established before him (Kellerman , 2006).

 

In a context great political crisis, Thomas Carlyle (1795–1881) looked for a source of inspiration and direction who will be a great man, it was like a credo. A link can be made between work of Carlyle and the publication of Sigmund Freud “Moses and Monotheism”, a hero who liberated Israel and killed symbolically Pharaoh his father. Freud created by his work the science called psychoanalysis.

 

For Carlyle, heroes were gifts that God give to humanity to lead other peoples, for Freud, special leader are necessary in every, a figure loved by the group in kind of  process of identification.

In the opinion of Freud, the leader is always male, a father figure (Alan, B.,  2016). What about all great female figures the world know trough the history and impacted millions of persons in all domains?

 

 Herbert Spencer, a noted philosopher, sociologist, biologist and political theorist of the Victorian era, criticized this theory in terms of primitive and unscientific. For him all leader is a product own environment influence, after that,  he can influence the history (Wikipedia, 2020).

 

Warren Bennis and Patricia Ward Biederman (1996) estimate that now organizations need connections of genius or a sapiential circle and not a single man even if he is so talented.

 

Following on from the great man theory, the trait theory shows that traits of innate leadership like strong interpersonal and communication skills yield more results than those lacking from birth.                                                                                                                    

Kendra Cherry  (2019) notes that the trait theory of leadership focuses on identifying different personality traits and characteristics that are linked to successful leadership across a variety of situations. After Carlyle's thesis, many psychologists study the trait-based , Ralph Melvin Stogdill for example esteemed that leadership is the result of the interaction between the individual and the social situation and not merely the result of a predefined set of traits that special men receive when they are born. Some years after, James M. Kouzes and Barry Z. Posner affirmed the place of leadership  indicators like credibility, honesty …

Many have some traits that leaders but do not become leaders automatically, there must be some opportunities and situational variables for emerging of this leadership.

 

 

Jörg Felfe and Lars-Eric Petersen (2007) mentioned Romance of leadership as one theory in leadership defined as a general tendency to view or conceive the leadership as the most important factor for the success or failure of organizations of any type or any size. Here the influence of leadership is overemphasized, particularly in cases of outstanding success or failure, people tend to overestimate the role of the leader and neglect external circumstances. In politic all success is attributed to the president as the supreme guide, the Rais, but if something fail the same people forgets all praise about this chief and he is viewed as the cause premiere forgetting their own responsibility in the chaos.

 

 Situational leadership theory shows that the effectiveness of leadership depends on situations, and leaders must adapt to each situation including the motivation of followers and their ability to perform well the tasks assigned to them. This leadership is changing. The leader can adopt a directive style if the group's followers are less competent and have high engagement.

The leader can do leadership coaching if the members are less skilled and less engaged. The leadership style can be delegating if the group members are very competent and very committed.

 

There is also the affiliation style which is more concerned with feelings and emotions rather than with tasks or organizational goals.

By forging strong bonds, leaders create loyalty and style through effective communication by sharing ideas and inspirations.

The leader also creates the feeling of belonging and everyone feels a full member of a large structural or organizational family.

 

There are four models of situational leadership: contingence by Fiedler, decision model de Vroom-Yetton, model of path-goal by Robert House, Hersey-Blanchard model.          Fieldler’s contingency model shows that the performance of a group are depending on leadership style, motivation in task,  relations in the group, task structured with goal and procedures, control of subordinates by reward or punishment.

 Henry –Blanchard situational theory is essential to determine style of leadership. There are psychological maturity manifested by self-confidence and being ready for responsibility, and job maturity depending on expertise. When maturity of the subordinates grows, the style ought to be focused more in relation than tasks.

Evans and House elaborated a path-goal theory showing that performance is depending of leadership rewards after doing a work or performing a target, clarify paths toward the goals fixed. Leader can adopt a directive leadership where he gives direction and establish rules; it could be also a supportive leadership where relations are good and the leader is sensitive to the needs of subordinates. It could be also participative leadership where the entire group is concerned in decisions making; or achievement leadership where group is encouraged to challenge high performance.  The supportive approach or style gives more satisfaction into the group members.

Vroom –Yvette leadership model shows that style of leadership is about how decisions are made. In can be autocratic or consultative:

-Autocratic Type 1 (AI), here the leader makes the decision alone.

-Autocratic Type 2 (AII), here the leader collects information from some followers then makes decision alone.

-Consultative Type 1 (CI), here the leader shares the problem to relevant followers individually and makes the decision alone after hearing individual input.

-Consultative Type II (CII) , in this case the leader shares the problem to relevant followers as a group, then makes the decision alone after hearing group input and discussion.

-Group-Based Type II (GII), in this style the leader presents the problem to followers as a group and seeks ideas from them through brainstorming. The leader accepts the decision by the group without forcing his idea.

To make decisions, the leader must respond to seven questions:
1.  Is there a quality requirement (the nature of the solution is critical)?

2.  Do I possess more information to make this decision?

3.  Is it a structured problem, are there alternatives or the solution is unique?

4.  How critical is subordinate acceptance to the outcome or implementation?

5.  Would my subordinates accept my decision if I make it myself?

6.  Do my subordinates have a personal stake in the solution?

7.  Will there be conflict among subordinates when trying to reach a solution?                                ( Pugh, 1990; Robert, V.,  1988, Vroom and Yetton , 2010;  Tannenbaum  and  Schmidt,  1973). 

 

The contingency theory is based on certain environmental variables which are determinants of the appropriate leadership style for each situation and that there is

no preferable style compared to others but it all depends on the contexts. If a leader

is effective in a given context, it does not mean that he will be effective in other cases

because the factors are not the same.

 Contingency theory and situational leadership are almost equivalent except that

contingent theory takes a larger perspective including people, tasks, situation and

environmental factors.

 

 Behavioral theory emphasizes the behaviors of a leader that are different from

innate traits. From psychologist Kurt Lewin who talked about autocratic, democratic

and laissez-faire leaders.

Category one leaders make decisions unilaterally, without consulting subordinates. It

is only in an emergency where this mode is tolerated. Democratic leaders consult the

opinions of others to finally decide, but it is difficult when there are too many

opinions expressed which to take and which to leave, without however hurting one or

the other.

The laissez-faire leaders leave the decision-making responsibility to the members of their teams but this requires a high qualification of those who form the team, which is not always easy.

 

The autocratic style is also called Theory X and gave less resulting in companies, and

participative style is named Y theory by Douglas McGregor in his book “The Human Side of Enterprise » (1960) and gives a lot of performance to the teams.

Blau (1964) is in the model of dyadic linkage VDL (Vertical Dyad Linkage) in perspective of LMX theory which not only focuses on the leader but also studies the social relationships and exchanges between leaders and followers.

In a structure, there are what are called “in- group followers ”or endogroups, that is to say the followers who have a strong relationship with the leader because of a relationship of trust, mutual respect and appreciation, and in return the leader supports them, grants them promotion and their relations go beyond the organizational or professional framework.  

 

On the other hand there are the “out-group followers” or out-groups, the followers who do not have the same level of trust and attention from the leader.  Their relationships are limited only to the hierarchical level rather than social. The similarity-attraction theory or the mirror effect shows that in a given structure or group, sympathy and other interactions are the result of similarity, so people tend to interact more easily with people with the more they have similarities. The principal premise here is differentionnal in quality of relations (Smriti, A., al.2011)

 The quality of the social relationship between leader and followers has an impact on professional performance. Many leaders recommend their followers, particularly through the digital platforms of professional networks like LinkedIn or Google + circles to propel them.

 

The transactional leadership model starts from the assumption that people perform when the reporting line is clear, because employees are motivated by both rewards and fear of punishment. If they work well they are rewarded, if they do not give expected results they can be punished. This requires monitoring employees who show whether they are following the instructions of the manager.

Where the problem is simple and clearly defined the theory is valid (RBS, 2017).

American psychologist Frederick Herzberg is regarded as one of the great original thinkers in management and. He set out to determine the effect of attitude on motivation, by simply asking people to describe the times when they felt really good, and really bad concerning their jobs. He found two factors of motivation: “hygiene factors,” or extrinsic motivators and “motivation factors,” or intrinsic motivators. Hygiene factors, or extrinsic motivators represent basic needs or existence needs in the pyramid of Maslow and intrinsic motivators include needs such as the status, the job security, a good salary. If extrinsic motivators are not provided there will be dissatisfaction and motivation will decrease among workers.

Extrinsic motivators like salary or others benefits like bounty are expected. Their presence does not increase motivation but their missing decrease motivation. Intrinsic motivators such as the possibility to grow potential and challenges can increase motivation (2011).

 Source : Lumen                                                                                                                                    

In other words, not only salary or money which is a key element to keep employees satisfied or decrease their motivation, but an ensemble of elements and factors.

Organizational Behavior and Human Relations

Since 1980, a paradigm shift has taken place in the field of leadership of State or private organizations, small or large, following many challenges encountered in a globalized context such as scandals on the part of managers and CEOs, lack of ethics among leaders, lack of goals and motivations for work and ecological issues.  The new theories emphasize notions such as service (servant leadership), the empowerment of others (transformational leadership), and the place of ethical values in leadership (spiritual leadership).

 

Transformational leadership seeks to satisfy followers' needs through the use of empowerment and by inspiring them to fulfill their own leadership potential.

Innovation and creativity are the leitmotif because transformational leaders are agents of change, the status quo is seen as a threat, and they like creative thinking.

They are visionaries and communicate these visions to followers by showing where the group or organization is going, making sense of everyone's commitment. They also give an ethical orientation to everyone. The vision here is communicated while being attentive to all stakeholders: employees, customers... 

Leadership is central element for organizational effectiveness, in transformational paradigm, but this paradigm is not described in detail according to Gary Yukl (1999).

 

The authentic leadership model emerged as a result of scandals at the corporate level, and the lack of integrity and accountability in the public, and private sectors.  

Its foundation is authenticity in other words self-knowledge of oneself, having one's own unique style and not seeking to be an ideal leader.

The cardinal elements that make up this leadership are transparency by allowing followers to express their opinions and the openness of the leader to receive new ideas, self-evaluation to know how to recognize his strengths and weaknesses.

 

Among new paradigms in leadership, there is a gender based model called female leadership.

Is there a female leadership style or model?

Leadership styles of women and men are different, probably because women seem to be more cooperative and collaborative and less hierarchical than men in leadership.

Women and men have different social roles, in the family, workplace and society.

 

Men seem to be controlling, assertive, dominant, independent, self-confident and competitive. But women are helpful, kind, affectionate, sympathetic, nurturing, interpersonally sensitive and gentle.

Women have also some advantages but they suffer some disadvantages from prejudicial evaluations of their competence as leaders in masculine organizational contexts and societies according the research made by Alice H. Eagly and  Linda L.Carli (2003).

 

Having different characteristics male and female try to adopt each others’ style of leadership in order to be competent in leader roles. Another point of view, that leadership doesn’t know the gender.

In the task behavior women emphasize production. They will continue their strong contributions to the task at hand when the group is doing well, where as men will reduce their contributions as the group does better. It was found out that female leaders spend more time communicating about the task on hand than men, as they make more off-task comments. Women are rated as being more interpersonally warm during the first interactions then male leaders.

Females using an authoritarian style of leadership were perceived less favorably than males using the same style. In decision making, women use a democratic or participative style than men.

Women value listening as a skill that makes others feels both comfortable and important. How women interact and what kind of way they are using:

First of all, women have an equalitarian (a person who believes in the equality of all people) view among themselves.

Secondly, women are described to be more cooperative and supportive, while their male counterparts tend to be more self-assertive and competitive.

Thirdly, women desire leaders who are cooperative, empathetic, supportive, democratic, and calm.

Fourthly, most women perceive leadership more as a facilitation and organization rather than power and dominance.

 

If we can summarize the above written, females and males are equally effective leaders.

Female and male leaders are equally effective in conflict management styles. The only difference in female and male conflict management styles include age, education, and managerial experience (Ainura, K., 2008).

 

Emotional leadership focuses on the individual and their introspective capacity.

It examines how the leader can deal with his emotions, and then those of others. Here emotional intelligence is the basis and it helps measure a person's ability to deal with their emotions and those of others. It also includes understanding and reasoning with one's emotions, the ability to regulate ones owns emotions and those of others.

Neuropsychologist Damascio in “Descartes Error: The Reason for Emotions” (1994) shows that poorly managed emotional problems can have a negative impact on the way leaders make decisions and in matters of strategy. Emotions are not against rationality, and rationality does not exclude emotions. And it was Descartes' mistake to separate body and mind, emotion and rationality. Damascio is in the logic of somatic marker (Munoz, 2017).   

 

 

The servant leadership paradigm is based on the fact that the leader feels like serving first and is not motivated by the benefits that the leadership position can provide. Here it is the needs of the employees or the people we lead that are prioritized and always worry about the effects and actions carried out on the weakest in society, the excluded, the marginalized...

These characteristics include: listening to be attentive to what others are saying , empathy as a way of approaching problems and feeling the emotions and sorrows of employees or those under your responsibility ; conceptualizing to see the big picture and its implication in relation to how to plan and make decisions ; community building to work in cooperation, and have a sense of belonging (RBS,  2017).    

 

Although the specialized literature believes that it was Robert Greenleaf who was the first starter from his book: “The power of servant leadership. Essays” printed first in 1970 to give the basics and building blocks of this model of leadership and changing top of pyramid paradigm connected with accumulation of power but one person, servant leader share power and empower others to grow. According to him servant leadership is a concept lacking in most of organizations (1998).

 

But we believe this was already mentioned in the Bible centuries before.  The great leader Jesus Christ declared: “He that wishes to be great among you be your servant " (Matthew 20, 26). He criticized the tyranny of the rulers of the day, and did not limit himself only to denunciation and proclamation but also practiced it, for example when he washed the feet of his disciples (John 13, 5), when he fed the crowd but did not take the opportunity to become king (John 6, 15) and yet he was a kairos as we say in biblical language.      

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The model of ethical leadership is leadership based on knowledge of one's values ​​and the courage to live according to them for the common good despite the difficult context.

Personal actions and interpersonal relationships are based on four “Vs”: vision, voice, values and virtue. To be an ethical leader one needs to adhere to a more universal standard of moral behavior , asking questions about what is right and what is wrong , giving an  example to others by  actions not only in words (Katja et al. , 2010).

 

Vision is the creation, or ideation, of an image that shows the results you want to have. The voice is the communication of vision in an authentic way. Values ​​constitute the integration into the decision-making process at the personal and interpersonal level of cardinal values, and virtue is the assessment of the vision, voice and values ​​that are implemented in the professional environment.

 

The theory of spiritual leadership was developed by Louis Fry as a set of attitudes, values ​​and behaviors to motivate oneself and motivate others in order to have spiritual meaning and well-being, seeking internal change, to influence people's souls instead of controlling their actions. 

It puts a particular emphasis on ethics, relationships and the balance between work and self-

actualization.

Among its characteristics, articulating high purpose and great vision, so that people are engaged in a great cause and workers find meaning in their lives. Spiritual leaders are driven by values ​​and they infuse them into their organizations to serve as a guide for decisions and performance. 

They serve and develop the employees, also engage the finances of the company in a social responsibility. They work for changing hearts and not just techniques. They increase the sense of being members of an entity with strong ties to increase productivity (Fry, 2003).

 

E. The quantum mechanics and physics and leadership

Danah Zohar a leader in quantum leadership affirms that Newton’s work had great impact in many fields and way of thinking.  Newtonian paradigm became the reference for economy,management, psychology,...Sigmund Freud searched to be the Newton of the field of psychology; John Stewart  Mill the great political philosopher, want to have knowledge like Newton; The management thinking of Fredrick Taylor was influenced by Newton, even the cognitive science. With the discovery of atom in quantum physics, the work of David Bohm’s about implicate order and explicate order, a shift happened (Russ Volckmann 2013).The paradigm of quantum leadership emerged creating a shift in the Newtonian paradigm in management witch  effective many years ago. Focused on well-defined objectives and linked to rules and control, this old paradigm implied strict compliance with procedures and orders, so it demonstrated its limits in terms of human capital development and the ability to face complex and fast changes.

Among its key elements there is efficiency, profit. But he quantum responds to the need to of transformation in the leadership of organizations. In the quantum paradigm, knowledge and innovation are obtained through various interpretations of reality.

In quantum perspective, the qualitative research methods as used to understand the reality.

The main feature of this kind of research is that the world is composed of multiple realities which require a mental relationship between the participants and those engaged in research. So model of cause and effect is not sufficient to explain phenomena which need creativity, imagination, observation and inventiveness.

 

Fernando Almeida (2017) quantitative method is about reliable measurements by statistics and quantification of data, using some software such as Stata, R, SPSS…all methodology has strength and weakness.

The quantum paradigm encourages creativity and full innovation by optimizing the full potential of workers by permanent interaction, collaboration and cooperation. In this view, not only clients by all the organization with the environment ( physical and human) interact in rational and irrational way, linear and no linear according to Russ Volckmann (2013).

 

B.                Characteristics and quality of leaders

 

JA Conger and RN Kanungo (2003) give five characteristics to have skills recognized

as a leader. Their characteristics fit for what is called charismatic leadership.

- Possess a vision and be able to communicate it;

- Take risks on a personal level and even on a financial level;

- Be able to analyze the various constraints and know how to seize the opportunities that arise with adequate resources;

- Be sensitive to the needs of his subordinates;

- Be a maverick

 

Kets De Vries (2013) for his part gives a typology in eight archetypes : 

- The strategist, who conceives the leadership like a game of chess, he has a global

vision of the environment; he brings vision in times of crisis;

- The catalyst acts in a period of recovery because it is a vector of change;

- The tractator, having ability as negotiator, who approaches each situation as a challenge. He acts on urgent situations.

- The builder conceives the leadership as a function building with foundations that should be laid and know how to remain tenacious and persevering like an entrepreneur;

- The innovator brings new ideas and knows how to communicate his enthusiasm ; having great capacity of solving difficult problems

- The processor who is an organizer and seeks efficiency and is comfortable in a system with high visibility. He is characterized by his calm and his knowledge of procedures;

- The coach who seeks to develop people, while the listening and their inspiring confidence; they are able to get what is best in people

- The communicator sets up strategies to convince by a strong presence and visibility while attracting the attention of others in their surroundings.

 

For one of pioneer of leadership studies, Warren Bennis in his book “On becoming a Leader” ( 2009), among qualities a leader must have, we can quote:

 -To  have a vision, and persuade others  to appropriate this vision

- To have a distinctive voice, in other words a purpose, self-confidence, and a sense of self, and the whole gestalt of abilities or emotional intelligence.

-To have integrity, the corporate weasels, a strong moral compass, a powerful belief in something outside one’s self.

-To have an adaptive capacity which is the key competence for a leader, its allows leaders to give answers to change, to act adequately with speed and evaluate the results not in  the traditional decision-making model, consisting to collect and analyze the data, and act. The ability to identify and seize opportunities.

 

John Maxwell

Pastor and best seller author in the field of leadership with more than 70 books to his credit. For him, the key element of leadership is influence, not title, position or function. He showed some principles of leadership in his best seller entitled:”The 21 Irrefutable Laws of Leadership: Follow them and people will follow you”.

The weakness of these laws is in their practical aspect. Empirical research ought to be done to test their validity.                                                                                      

Concerning levels in leadership, John Maxwell (2011) gives five levels of leadership, from the lowest to the highest: 

Level 1: position 

The position level is the lowest of the leadership levels, the entry gate . Here the influence of the leader comes from his position , his title or his rank at work for example. People follow it by some kind of contractual obligation. Positional leadership is based on the rights given by that position and its title. There is nothing wrong in the fact of having a leadership position.

Level 2: the permission 

 

This level is based on relationships. At the permission level, people follow because they want to. When you like people and you treat them as' being of  value, you begin to develop a certain impact on them .

The confidence starts to settle, here we do not care to keep the position but know personally those we lead and how to develop relationships with them.

You can love people without necessarily being in a leadership position, but you cannot lead people well if you don't like them. 

 

Level 3: production 

 

One of the dangers awaiting the leader who reaches the permission level is the temptation to stay there. But good leaders should not stay there but progress at level 3, that of results. At production, leaders gain influence and the credibility of others following their results , in what they have done for the organization.

We can even see the impact, for example, people's morale improves, and profits increase, staff turnover decreases and goals are reached more easily.

 

At this level, it becomes enjoyable to lead and influence others. Success and

productivity are visible.

At level 3, leaders become agents of change in s' attacking difficult problems and taking tough decisions to lead their team to a new level of efficiency.

 

Level 4 : further training 

 

Leaders become prominent, not because of their power, but because of their ability to increase the empowerment of others.

This is what the leading level 4. They use their position, the sisters relationships and

outcomes to invest in those who follow and support and their development until they

become in their turn leaders. Here there is a multiplication of leaders.

At level 4, two things happen : first , teamwork reaches a very high level . Then, the

performance increases because the more there are leaders in a team the performance

of all increases . 

Level 4 leaders change the lives of the people they lead. Therefore, they follow them because of what their leaders have done for them personally, and their relationships often last a lifetime.

 

Level 5 : the pinnacle 

 

The highest and most difficult level of leadership is that of the pinnacle. While most people can learn to climb levels 1 to 4, Level 5 requires not only efforts, skills of a good will and determination, but also s talent s and values.

At Level 5 leaders develop people to become Level 4 leaders.

If the gen’s are friendly, pleasant therefore have values but also productive,

they will have some e influence others and be successful and to make them the more

followers at least ease. It is not easy to develop people so that they can lead themselves.

Level 5 leaders also develop organizations by creating opportunities, and

leaving a legacy because they do. People follow to that they are and what they

represent such values . In other words, their leadership gains a reputation and goes

beyond their domain and structure.

 

 

Karien Jooste distinguishes 3 levels of influence in leadership: a direct level, an

organizational level and a strategic level.

The direct leadership level is the influence resulting of face-to-face between leaders

and followers. Here the leaders develop followers by a personal contact.

The organizational leadership level is a level to influence thousands of people, here

the leadership impacts indirectly by the actions of various levels of followers.

The strategic leadership level is a level to influence an entire nation, millions of

people.

Strong and appropriate leadership is essential at these higher levels of management

(RBS, 2017). 

 

C.                Limits of leadership theories

 

All these are limited and their main weakness is that they consider not the

question of context.

Then cross-cultural researchers examine now whether the qualities of desired and effective leadership are contextual or universal. A universal cultural theory prescribing or describing, and analyzing all aspects of leadership and applicable to any situation for example the notion of integrity. It is a value for all leaders in the world but take the form of the culture. Another thing is that a same action could be perceived differently in the same culture and elsewhere.

For example allocentrics persons have tendency to view the actions of leadership as being more desirable and effective to the extent that these focus on what is good for the group versus individual self-interests but idiocentrics are tendency to view the individual as having the priority over in-group goals.  Bruce J. Avolio (2017) thinks that they look for self-interests first and consider leadership behaviors operating for the good of the entire group as being in conflict with their self-interests and not interesting.

 

Some points to be considered for integrating the context of culture as an important factor in models of leadership according to Bruce J. Avolio (2017):

-situate in what cultural context leaders and followers interact;

- study the behaviors and their cultural interpretation by leaders and followers;

- establish the duration of the leader–follower relationship in considering all events that could influence directly or indirectly that relationship as a situation of instability, uncertainty in the organization or the country

-study the different personality and different influences they had in their childhood, youth and environment because all that has an impact in their behaviors as leaders or followers. For example many children who were under an authoritarian parenting style manifest in the future a great level of achievement orientation.

 

Leaders cannot choose their leadership style based on their own goodwill.

They are limited by the cultural environment in which they have been socialized and what their subordinates expect. For example, a manipulative or authoritarian style is compatible with societies characterized by great inequalities in power , those of Arab countries and South America, for example. Arab leaders must show harshness and authority. Being kind or generous without being invited can be seen as a sign of weakness. According to Stephen Robbins, participation will be most effective in countries that value equality, such as Norway, Denmark, Finland and Sweden. It is also recommended that leaders take into account the expectations of employees, including in their own country if these employees were brought up in another culture.

 

Most theories have an American bias, emphasizing the responsibilities of employee than their rights, putting more value on rationality than spirituality, value hedonism over task dedication and altruistic motivation.

These assumptions are not universal, out of step with India where more emphasis is in spirituality, nor in Japan that has a system with ensuring the possibility for the collaborators to save face, and China where it is permitted to humiliate in public a collaborator ( Kilongo , 2015). 

The context of leadership requires also establishing the difference between manager and leader.

 

D.                Differences between manager and leader

William Arruda (2016) gives 9 differences between a manager and a leader.

a.                  Leaders create a vision, managers create goals

When the managers focus on setting, measuring and how achieving goals and control situations, leaders in their side design a picture of what they see as possible future, and then inspire and engage people to turn this vision to reality by praxis. Leaders activate people to be

participate of something great and new, that one man could not accomplish even if he is a genius but a coalition could do it better.

 

b.                 Leaders are change agents, managers like statu quo

Leaders work to bring innovation and change, they see possibility of a better way forward and understand that change in a system brings waves. Managers refine systems, structures and process to perform them.

 

c.                  Leaders seek to be unique but managers copy

Leaders like to be unique, themselves and work actively to build their unique and differential persons brand, they seek to be authentic but managers mimic the competencies and behaviors they learn from others and adopt their leadership style.

 

d.                  Leaders take risk, managers control risk.

Leaders try new things even if they fail many times because failure is often a step on the path of success but managers seek to minimize risk.

e.                  Leaders are in it for the long haul, managers think short-term

Leaders have long time vision, they remain motivated without receiving rewards, and managers work on shorter-term goals seeking acknowledgment.

f.                   Leaders grow normally, managers rely on existing, proven skills

Leaders know if they do not learn regularly new things they cannot stand, so they are curious and seek to remain relevant in a changing world.

Managers double down what is successful.

g.                  Leaders build relationship, managers build systems and process

Leaders focus on people and seek to influence them to accomplish their vision. They build loyalty and trust by consistently delivering on their promise.

Managers focus on the structure necessary to set and achieve goals.

They work with individuals and their goals and objectives.

h.                  Leaders coach, managers direct

Leaders have another perception of people’s potential. They know that they are competent and are able to do things correctly but managers assigns tasks and provide guidance on how to accomplish them, limiting creativity.

i.                    Leaders create fans, managers have employee

Leaders have people who go beyond following them and become fans or fervent promoters, helping them build their brand, achieving their goals and increasing their visibility. Managers have staff that follows a direction and seek to please to their chief.

I think in spite of differences, an organization needs managers and leaders or individuals who are leaders and managers but leaders are more precious for the change they bring.

 

 

E.                 Leadership and change

 

For Gary Yukl (2013), leading change is one of the most important and difficult responsibilities for top management and leaders in organizations.

They initiate major change even if other members of the organization can be useful for its success. These are top down approach in change and bottom up approach developed in social sciences for bringing transformation by elites or by mass.

The focus of a change effort may involve many think such as the roles or the attitudes…

 

Roles or Attitudes

One useful distinction is between efforts to change attitudes versus efforts to change roles, structures, and procedures.

The underlying assumption is that new attitudes and skills will cause behavior to change in a beneficial way. The leader seeks to convert resisters into change agents who will transmit the vision to other people in the organization.

The role-centered approach involves changing work roles by reorganizing the workflow, redesigning jobs to include different activities and responsibilities, modifying authority relationships, changing the criteria and procedures for evaluation of work, and changing the reward system.

The assumption is that when work rules require people to act in a different way, they will change their attitudes to be consistent with the new behavior.

Effective behavior is induced by the new role requirements and reinforced by the evaluation and reward system. An example will clarify the difference between the two approaches to organizational change.

A company is having difficulty getting people in different functionally specialized departments to cooperate in developing new products rapidly and getting them into the marketplace. One approach is to talk about the importance of cooperation and use a process analysis interventionor team-building activity to increase understanding and mutual respect

among people from different functions. This approach assumes that increased trust and understanding will increase cooperation back in the workplace.

 

Another approach is to create cross-functional teams that are responsible for the development of a new product, and then reward people for contributions to the success of the team. This approach assumes that people who cooperate to achieve a common goal will come to understand and trust each other.

 

Technology

 

Another type of change is in the technology used to do the work. Many Organizations have attempted to improve performance by implementing new information and decision support systems. Examples include networked workstations, human resource information systems,

inventory and order processing systems, sales tracking systems, or an intranet with groupware for communication and idea sharing among employees. Such changes often fail to yield the desired benefits, because without consistent changes in work roles, attitudes, and skills, the new technologywill not be accepted and used in an effective way.

 

Strategy

 

Still another major type of change is in the competitive strategy for achieving the major objectives of the team or organization. Examples of strategy changes for a company include introduction of new products or services, entering new markets, use of new forms of marketing, initiation of Internet sales in addition to direct selling, forming alliances or joint ventures with other organizations, and modifying relationships with suppliers. To be

successful, changes in the competitive strategy may require consistent changes in people, work roles, organization structure, and technology. For example, the decision to begin providing a more intensive type of customer service may require service personnel with additional skills and better technology for communicating with customers.

 

Economics performance and people

 

When it is question of internal changes in an organization the emphasize may to be put in financial performance or people capability and creativity. So a restructuration is necessary to implement a culture of change.

 

 

 

 

Change Processes

 

Change process theories describe a typical pattern of events that occur from the beginning of a change to the end, and in some cases they describe how earlier changes affect subsequent changes. The theories may identify distinct phases in the process, stages in the reaction of individuals, or effects of repeated changes on people.

 

 Stages in the Change Process

 

One of the earliest process theories was Lewin’s (1951) force-field model. He proposed that the change process can be divided into three phases: unfreezing, changing, and refreezing.

In the unfreezing phase, people come to realize that the old ways of doing things are no longer adequate. This recognition may occur as a result of an obvious crisis, or it may result from an effort to describe threats or opportunities that were not evident to most people in the organization. In the changing phase, people look for new ways of doing things and select a promising approach. In the refreezing phase, the new approach is implemented and it becomes established. All three phases are important for successful change. An attempt to move directly to the changing phase without first unfreezing attitudes is likely to meet with

apathy or strong resistance. Lack of systematic diagnosis and problem solving in the changing phase will result in a weak change plan. Lack of attention to consensus building and maintenance of enthusiasm in the third stage may result in the change being reversed soon after it is implemented.

 

According to Lewin, change may be achieved by two types of actions. One approach is to increase the driving forces toward change for example in increasing incentives and use position power to force change. The other approach is to reduce restraining forces that create resistance to change. If the restraining forces are weak, it may be sufficient merely to increase driving forces.

However, when restraining forces are strong, a dual approach is advisable. Unless restraining forces can be reduced, an increase in driving forces will create an intense conflict over the change, and continuing resistance will make it more difficult to complete the refreezing phase.

 

 

 

Reactions to Change

Despite the extensive literature providing guidance on how to initiate and manage change, many efforts fail to meet expectations (Burke, 2002). Large-scale change in organizations is difficult to study, and much of the research involves anecdotal accounts or case studies in a single organization. However, recent years have seen an increase in research on conditions affecting the success of change efforts in organizations. The research has examined how contextual factors and individual factors jointly determine the amount of resistance or commitment to change.

 

How a person reacts to change depends in part on the person’s general confidence about coping with change successfully. This confidence is affected by prior experience with change as well as by traits, such as self-confidence, risk tolerance, openness to new experiences, and internal locus of control orientation.

 

Reasons for Accepting or Rejecting Change

Many efforts to implement major change in an organization are unsuccessful, and resistance to change is a major reason for failure. One explanation for the outcome of a proposed change is in terms of leader power and the types of influence processes that leaders use (see Chapter 8 ). Compliance with the change is likely if people believe that it is a legitimate exercise of leader authority (legitimate power), or if they fear punishment for resisting the change (coercive power). Commitment to support a change initiative is likely when people trust

their leaders and believe that the change is necessary and effective (strong referent and expert power). However, resistance to change is common in organizations, and it can occur for several reasons that are not mutually exclusive.

 

Major change always entails some costs, and they may be higher than any likely benefits.

Resources are necessary to implement change, and resources already invested in doing things

Before initiating major changes, leaders need to be clear about the nature of the problem and the objectives to be achieved. Just as in the treatment of a physical illness, the first step is a careful diagnosis to determine what is wrong with the patient. The organizational diagnosis can be conducted by the top management team, by outside consultants, or by a task force composed of representatives of the various key stakeholders in the organization.

An incorrect diagnosis or an inappropriate change program will not provide the desired benefits.

Large-scale change in an organization is unlikely to be successful without the support of top management. However, contrary to common assumptions, major changes are not always initiated by top management, and they may not become involved until the process is well under way.

 

Major changes suggested by lower levels may be resisted by top managers who are strongly committed to tradition approaches and do not understand that the old ways of doing things are no longer appropriate.

The major transformation of an organization often requires the replacement of top management by new leaders with a mandate for radical change.

The essential role of top management in implementing change is to formulate an integrating vision and general strategy, build a coalition of supporters who endorse the strategy, then guide and coordinate the process by which the strategy will be implemented. Complex changes usually involve a process of experimentation and learning, because it is impossible to anticipate all the problems or to prepare detailed plans for how to carry out all aspects of the change.

 

Instead of specifying detailed guidelines for change at all levels of the organization, it is much better to encourage middle and lower-level managers to transform their own units in a way that is consistent with the vision and strategy. Top management should provide encouragement, support, and necessary resources to facilitate change, but should not try to dictate the details of how to do it.

 

 

Guidelines for Implementing Change

 

Successful implementation of change in organizations requires a wide range of leadership behaviors. Some of the behaviors involve political and administrative aspects, and others involve motivating, supporting, and guiding people. Even the people who initially endorse a change will need support and assistance to sustain their enthusiasm and optimism as the

inevitable difficulties and setbacks occur. Major change is always stressful and painful for people, especially when it involves a prolonged transition period of adjustment, disruption, and dislocation.

 

-                    Create a sense of urgency about the need for change.

When changes in the environment are gradual and no obvious crisis has occurred, many people fail to recognize emerging threats (or opportunities). An important role of the leader is to persuade other key people in the organization of the need for major changes.4-1

-                    Communicate a clear vision of the benefits to be gained. Communicate a clear vision of the benefits to be gained from change.

When it is necessary to make major changes in an organization, a vision of what the changes will do to achieve shared objectives and values is very helpful in gaining commitment for the change.

-                    Identify likely supporters, opponents, and reasons for resistance. To evaluate the feasibility of various strategies for accomplishing major change in the organization, a leader must understand the political processes, the distribution of power, and the identity of people whose support is necessary to make the change happen. Before beginning a major change effort, it is useful to identify likely supporters and opponents. Time should be set aside to explore each of the following questions. Which key people will determine whether a proposal will be successfully implemented? Who is likely to support the proposal? How much resistance is likely and from whom? What would be necessary to overcome the resistance? How could skeptics be converted into supporters?

-                    Build a broad coalition to support the change.

The task of persuading people to support major change is not easy, and it is a too big job for a single leader to do alone. Successful change in an organization requires cooperative effort by people who have the power to facilitate or block change. It is essential to build a coalition of supporters, both inside and outside the organization. A supportive coalition may be even more important in pluralistic.

 

-                    Use task forces to guide the implementation of changes.

Temporary task forces are often useful to guide the implementation of major change in an organization, especially when it involves modification of the formal structure and the relationships among subunits.

-                    Empower competent people to help plan and implement change.

A major change is difficult if top management tries to dictate in detail how it will be implemented in each part of the organization. The authority to make decisions and deal with problems should be delegated to the individuals or teams responsible for implementing change. Competent supporters in key positions should be empowered to determine the best way to implement a new strategy or support a new program, rather than telling them in detail what to do.

-                    Monitor the progress of change and make any necessary adjustments.

Monitor the progress of change and make any necessary adjustments.

It is impossible to predict all of the obstacles and difficulties that will be encountered. Many things must be learned by doing, and monitoring is essential for this learning.

-                    Keep people informed about the progress of change.

A major change, like any other crisis, creates anxiety and stress in people who are affected by it. When a new strategy does not require many visible changes in the early stages of implementation, people will begin to wonder whether the effort has died and things are going back to the way they were. People will be more enthusiastic and optimistic if they know that the change program is progressing successfully.

-                    Demonstrate continued optimism and commitment to the change.

Hold ceremonies to announce the inauguration of major activities, to celebrate significant progress or success, and to give people recognition for their contributions and achievements. These celebrations provide an opportunity to increase optimism, build commitment, and strengthen identification with the organizational unit. Deal also with situational factors as the anticipation of resistance, the position of the initiator vis-à-vis the resisters, especially with regard to power. The less power the initiator has with respect to others, the more the initiating leader must move to the right on the changing slowly over time.

-                    Identify likely supporters, opponents, and reasons for resistance. Supporters

are needed not only within the top executive team, but also among middle and lower levels of management.

 

-                    Recognizing the contributions and accomplishments of individuals makes the importance of each person’s role in the collective effort more evident.

When obstacles are encountered, explain what they are and what is being done about them. If the implementation plan must be revised, explain why it was necessary. Otherwise, people may interpret any revisions in the plan or schedule as a sign of faltering commitment

 ( Kotter and  Schlesinger, 2008;  Kuyl, 2013 )  .

 

 I think the key for success in first in the vision of change, after it the preparation of change as shown by  Lewin’s change model from the current state to unknown

 

Lewin’s Change Model

 

 

                                                  Source: 9m Consulting (2021)

 

but a future state desired for the organization. The change could be reactive or proactive which is influenced by the internal and external environment, the  power, the  culture and the politics (Talib, et al. , 2016). The schema above summarizes his thought about change. 

Change is a process and strategies must be defined to deal with all kind of resistance.

 

F.                 The notions of power and influence in leadership

 

Emeritus professor of management in the University of Albany, Gary Yukl has set a theory of influence and power in organizations.

According to him, influencing people is the nature or the essence of all leadership.

He described several kinds of power and ways of influencing (2013). The concept of power is a dynamic notion concerning the agent who influences (a person or an organization) and the influenced that is the target.

 Power here refers to the capacity to influence the behavior or attitudes of another person in a precise time. And authority, the rights or prerogatives, the obligations associated with a position in an organization.

 

 

To influence, many strategies and tactics are set.

 

Impression: leaders and followers use management tactics to influence each others.

Political Tactics: serve to influence the decisions in organization, also used for apologetically cause in the organization and using sometimes manipulation and power abuse. The ethics of these tactics are subject of questions.

John R.P French and Bertram Raven (1959) studied the complexity of power and noted six  bases or sources power which are key elements for influencing others.

The reward power is based in a promise to fulfill something and receive a reward after.

The coercitive power is based in sanctions and the threat of punishment to force do thing again his will, the referent power based on the sentiment of sympathy and their appreciation to like you or no deriving value or attractiveness. The expert power derives from competency and expertise; the legitimate power or a power from an official position and the information power which is an access to vital information that others ignore. Gary Kuyl adds ecological power to control the work environment (2013).

 

In conclusion of this chapter, many leadership paradigms was seen in this chapter and most of them are a product of Western and have the weakness of lacking contextualization and spirituality, based on rationality.

So, it is necessary for the efficiency in leadership in Africa to make an epistemological rupture, a paradigm shift.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER tWO: CLASS OF INTELLIGENCE and nOtion of SPIRITUal INTELLIGENCE  

 

What is spiritual intelligence, what is its impact in organizational leadership? These are some questions we will answer in this chapter.

A.                 Gardner's theory of multiple intelligence

 

Howard Gardner revolutionized the world regarding the notion of intelligence generally conceived in terms of IQ (intelligence quotient). Professor of psychology at the Graduate School of Education of the famous Harvard University, he wrote: " Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences " where he demonstrates the existence not of one mind that we could measure and quantify but talking about multiple intelligences.       

 

According to Serge Laivee and Carole Sénéchal (2015), Gardner is not the first to support the plurality of intelligences. The proponents of the factorial current supported the thesis according to which intelligence is full of many components, at the antipodes of Spearman (1904) who defended a one-dimensional approach to intelligence symbolized by g or general intelligence.Cattell (1971) and Vernon (1971) for their ratings defended a hierarchy of intelligence with g as the general factor and other secondary factors including the verbal factor and the visuospatial factor. Cattell spoke about fluide intelligence and crystallized

intelligence called gf-gc theory. Fluid intelligence is inherited and is a capacity to

solve problems, declining with age but crystallized intelligence is a product of learning, consisting of the knowledge of facts and procedures. It depends on the practice of fluid intelligence in new situations.

 

On the other hand Philip Kent (2017) thought that the first research about intelligence dates to the 19th century with quantitative research of Francis Galton (1883) about the human abilities in his Anthropometric Laboratory of London city.  

Spearman had began very late (1904) dealing with general mental or general intelligence. The effects of heredity on (g) were very meaningful and he found no significant racial differences.

Lisa M. Beardsley (2004) summarizes the theories of intelligence into four main models:  developmental with Jean Piaget process of assimilation and accommodation, the psychometric models based on measurement concepts with Raymond Cattell and his theory of fluid and crystallized abilities, the information processing models with Robert Sternberg and Howard Gardner, and J. P. Guilford model which a contextual model with products yields a Rubik’s Cube of 120 discrete aspects of intelligence. 

 

Intelligences are not valued by different cultures in the same way, so being intelligent has different meanings in different cultures and different periods of history ( Beardsley, 2004).

 

The different intelligences according to Gardner are: 

 

Linguistic	Skills attached to the production of speeches, mastery of languages ​​and their good handling. The ability to think in words, use them to express and appreciate difficult meanings. Do poetry, play on words and write essays and express your thoughts in words ...
Musical	Ability to perform tasks of musical order as the composition of the songs, melodies, their execution, a sharp ear for listening to audio, play musical instruments ...
Logical-mathematical	Ability to reason logically, to test scientific ideas and solutions systematically, to calculate and solve complex mathematical operations, to know, classify, use mathematical operations, to identify patterns, to experiment and develop arguments in a logical manner .
Space	Ability to perceive exactness of shapes, possibility of recreating and modifying them even without support. The fact of producing works of art, doing technical drawing, solving visual puzzles, navigating, piloting, drawing plans orother graphic representations , designing ...
Kinesthetic	Body skills or manual; control and Harmonization of body movements. Solve problems or create using all parts of their body. Execute movement sequences; communicate ideas and emotions through the body. Everyone from the sport , gymnastics, the dance, the mime, or the  ability to build and repair items as  masons and mechanics ...
Interpersonal	Skills in interpersonal relationships: sensitivity to moods, temperaments, motivations. To have empathy and sensitivity towards others. Being able to cooperate and interact socially,  to maintain long term relationships, ability to organize and manage people. Know how to  negotiate , reconcile, lead a group .
Intra personal	Ability to introspection, self-analysis, to represent a true and precise image of    oneself and to use it effectively. Knowledge of one's learning  process or metacognition , analysis of  one's own strengths, limitations, behaviors, fears, and a basic knowledge  of emotions .
Naturalist	Ability to recognize and classify the different species of flora and fauna. Understanding, reasoning and  solving problems in the natural environment, studying different ecosystems, protecting the environment.
Existential	Ability to think deeply fundamental questions of human existence to grasp the meaning, scope or reason (why am I  on earth, what is my mission ....)  (Laivée and Senechal, 2015 ).

 

 

Some other authors have added the notion of emotional intelligence which has features with intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence, creative intelligence, collective intelligence, social intelligence, practices intelligence... Marco Tavanti (2006) inspired by the works of David C Thomas, Kerr Inkson and Daniel Goldman speaks about  cultural intelligence or cultural quotient (CQ) as the skills for  leaders and managers to recognize cross-cultural difference and consequently to choose appropriate behaviors according to each cross-cultural

context. It is related to social intelligence.

 

From these different intelligences developed by Gardner, careers can emerge : for

linguistic intelligence, for example, someone can become a great  actor, a renowned lawyer, a talented journalist, a famous writer, an outstanding communicator.                                   For musical intelligence: conductor, performer, sound engineer... 

For logical-mathematical intelligence one can be an engineer, accountant,

economist, statistician, computer scientist …. For spatial intelligence: graphic

designer, architect, town planner … For kinesthetic intelligence: actor, dancer,

mechanic, firefighter, surgeon … For naturalistic intelligence, one can become an

anthropologist, zoologist, curator, forest ranger, landscape designer…

 

For interpersonal intelligence, someone can excel as a manager, human resources

manager, negotiator, psychologist, nurse, political or religious leader, trader...

To understand intrapersonal can evolve as artist, philosopher, writer, coach,

contractor. ..

 

Existential intelligence is what authors like Ian Marshall and Zohar Danah (2000) call spiritual intelligence or supreme intelligence. Tony Buzan (2003) added sexual intelligence in this list as an understanding of the strength of everybody ( male or female) and the ability to communicate appropriately with the opposite sex.

 

Among the weaknesses of Gardner's conception of multiple intelligences, there is a little tautological thinking in his way of defining things for example for him , kinesthetic intelligence lies in the ability to use his body, and a person is able to fully make use of his body because that he has a good kinesthetic intelligence.

 

The second weakness is the confusion between the notion of intelligence with the notion of talent or gift (Larivée, 2012).

Gardner conception according to Perry D. Klein “is too broad to be useful for planning curriculum, and as a theory of ability, it presents a static view of student competence” (1997: 337)  .

For Gardner the intelligence works via intellect so instead of talking about theory of intelligence it will be normal to talk about theory of intellect and his conception is very restrictive (Messick, 1992).

 

There is a type of intelligence called interpersonal by Gardner that is keen to spirituality, it is emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is very close in many

points to spiritual intelligence.

Robert and Michele Root-Bernstein take the theory of multiple intelligences a step further.  They argue that “multiple intelligences” is not intelligence per se.  Rather, they are the media through which intelligence is expressed.  The artifacts created through these media are symptoms of intelligence.  According to them, thinking and creativity precede logical and verbal expression, and is experienced by the individual in pre-verbal ways.  Thus, to know a thing is first experienced through the emotions, intuitions, visual images, and bodily feelings.  For example, one may hunt for just the right word by checking a thesaurus or dictionary.  The right word, though, may be elusive and the individual proceeds with the best approximation that comes to mind (Beardsley, 2004).

Robert Root-Bernstein (2009) mentioned cases of multiple giftedness inspired by the work of historian of science Paul Cranefield found that among the men who founded the discipline of biophysics during the mid-19th century and found a direct correlation between the number and range of avocations each individual pursued, the number of major discoveries he made. The same, historian Minor Myers, Jr., found a similar correlation between the range of developed abilities and the diversity and importance of an individual’s contributions for great figures from the Renaissance through the modern era. Myers proposed that creativity is the result of diversity of knowledge and skill that an individual can integrate, the greater the number of novel and useful permutations that will result. The controversy between specialized creativity versus polymath or general creativity spills over to who is gifted. For those psychologists who favor specialization as the key to creativity, giftedness is often defined by precocity and always by unusual accomplishment in a single domain.

For Gardner creativity always occurs within domains and that specialized knowledge, training, and practice are required to achieve creative potential , here creativity-is-domain-specific perspective, polymath is not only unnecessary to creativity but actually inhibits its achievement by diverting an individual’s focus away from activities that bring professional success. Those who favor polymath as a basis for creativity view giftedness quite differently and, in fact, are asking a different question than the creativity s-domain-specific crowd.

Cranefield, Meyers integrate ideas from diverse fields as the bases of creative giftedness and ask not “who is creative?” but “what is the basis of creative thinking?” From the polymath perspective, giftedness is the ability to combine disparate (or even apparently contradictory) ideas, sets of problems, skills, talents, and knowledge in novel and useful ways. Polymath is therefore the main source of any individual’s creative potential. The question of “who is creative” must then be re-examined in light of what necessary for creative is thinking (Beardsley, 2004).

 

Gardner also made research and gave criteria for qualifying a skill as intelligence. 

These criteria derived from the biology of knowledge, the developmental psychology and the logical analysis.

 

Among these criteria, some individuals are considered geniuses or prodigies and in the same time “idiots” that is to say that they demonstrate exceptional success in certain field of intelligence but fail in another.  

 

Emotional intelligence has received a fair amount of interest since 1985 when Wayne Payne wrote a dissertation on the topic.  Mayer, Salovey and Mayer and Geher made a great contribution to the comprehension of emotional intelligence.  They describe it as social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate among various emotions, and to use the information to guide thought and action. 

Daniel Goleman popularized the concepts and applied it to business success with his 1995 book “Emotional Intelligence” (Beardsley, 2004).

By emotional intelligence (EQ) you have the ability to understand and feel for other people; an ability to read other people’s emotions or read the social situations that we are in, and to behave or respond appropriately, an intelligence to feel, helping leaders to identify the right people for the right job (RBS 2018).

 

G.                Spiritual intelligence

Let us start by defining it and then we will give the scientific criteria that make spiritual intelligence a full-fledged intelligence.

Spiritual intelligence is defined by Griffiths (2020) as a higher dimension, a dimension of intelligence activating the qualities and capacities of the being in terms of wisdom, compassion, integrity or creativity and emanating from an understanding deep of its goals and reasons of existence, causing an improvement of talents and work.

For Yosi Amram ( 2007) it is the ability to apply spiritual resources and their qualities for the functioning of daily life and for well-being. 

 Anthony (2003), De Souza (2009), Vaughan (2002) group intelligence into three forms: cognitive form in its aspect of learning and the thought process ; the emotional form through its aspect of affective learning and the process of sensitivity ; and the spiritual form seen as an inner reflective learning and intuition process.  

And in this context, spiritual intelligence is seen as a transpersonal intelligence that transcends individual limits, a non-rational dimension unifying man with nature and with God. 

 

According to Vaughan (2002), this allows the heart, brain and soul to be connected to recreate the environment, leading to a higher dimension of reflection and creativity in particular in terms of problem solving.

 

Spiritual intelligence in the thought of Zohar and Marshall (2000) is intelligence that helps solve problems of the meaning and value of things, the intelligence with which we can act in a broad perspective, it is the pinnacle of intelligence and allows us to make an adequate judgment on situations and to act accordingly. It allows the questioning of situations to see how to change them, and no longer be reactive but proactive, so no longer endure situations but become masters of them. 

Spiritual intelligence makes people aware of the existence of a supreme being and religion provides a substance of faith: in Muslims Allah and his prophet, in Christians Yahweh and his son Jesus.

For me, spiritual intelligence is a spirituality of a multidimensional transformation.                      The transformations are internal and external ( a new relation with God, a new relation in  searching harmony with oneself and well being for the community, and an harmony with the environment in being preoccupied not only by the present but also by the resources for the future generations). It includes values and rationality but goes beyond them.                           It is also the foundation and the base for all initiatives of transformation.

 

H.                Scientific criteria of spiritual intelligence

 

From the work of Howard Gardner, criteria have been established to qualify particular skills as intelligence. We will touch on a few of them although our objective in these writings is not to demonstrate the scientific character of spiritual intelligence.

- First, this intelligence must have moral capacities attached to it.          

 - Secondly, the ability to adapt, solve problems in specific contexts, living with an ethos.

- Third, the development with advancing age of these faculties.         

Gardner (1983) also recommended neurological, biological, and experimental

psychology evidence.

 Emmons (2000a) gave some intelligence criteria answering Gardner's profile which

we can summarize in: 

 

1.                    The capacity of transcendental consciousness or divine being.

2.                   The awareness of entering spiritual states such as sensations, being in ecstasies,        trance, contemplation ...

3.                  The ability to solve problems through spirituality.

4.                 The ability to follow moral example of love, forgiveness...

87

To these criteria Noble (2000) added the recognition capacity than the physical reality is embedded in a larger multidimensional reality and Vaughan (2002) added the capacity for thought and existential questioning.

 

According to Zohar and Marshall (2000) spiritual intelligence represents the process by which the human brain reconceptualizes experiences with signifier and signified to borrow the expression of Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1959).

 

We should add the holism which consists in mobilizing and motivating the people to work from a perspective that encompasses the whole organization and not being satisfied with the micro perception of their work only, anticipating the long-term consequences of the actions of today.

 

Discoveries in neurology have shown that in the human brain there is in the temporal lobe a field, a space for spiritual experiences. And it takes more and more space with spiritual exercises like prayer (Zohar, 2010).

 

For Richard Griffiths(2020), the studies in the field of neurology have established that the human brain has three distinct processing modes, called serial, parallel and synchronous. Serial processing is associated with IQ functions in the left brain.

Parallel processing is associated with EQ functions in the right brain. And synchronous processing is associated with SQ functions in the whole brain. Neural

Basis for Spiritual Intelligence oscillations at 40Hz propagate across the whole brain synchronously, and are associated with conscious attention and the state of presence.

 

By linking part-brain functions from both hemispheres into the integrated field of the whole brain, 40Hz synchronous oscillations connect mind, self and world into a meaningful whole. Consequently 40Hz oscillations constitute the neural basis for SQ.

The frequent use of the SQ neural network evolves a brain optimized for spiritual intelligence. This translates into an ability to sustain spiritual intelligence in association with any circumstances at the object-pole. Ultimately continued practice results in a 3Q brain (IQ+EQ+SQ=3Q), by means of neuroplasticity. A 3Q brain is structurally and permanently polarized to the subject-pole.

 

The 3Q Brain he 3Q brain (IQ+EQ+SQ=3Q) is optimized neurologically for spiritual intelligence. The default setting of attention in the 3Q brain is at the subject pole of attention, not at the object-pole of attention . The 3Q brain therefore replaces the ego with the soul, both as the seat of personal identity, and as the governor of IQ and EQ. The 3Q brain uses IQ and EQ not to pursue the goals of the ego, but to express the qualities of the soul, which are experienced at the subject pole of attention in moments of presence, in the form of wisdom, compassion, integrity, joy, love, creativity, and peace.

 

There is also what is called “critical existential thinking (CET) which is the ability to criticize the meaning of one's existence, the reasons and goals of life.

CET includes certain components such as “critical thinking” (CT) consisting in analyzing, conceptualizing, applying and evaluating data or information coming from experience, reflection or observations.

 There is also the “personal meaning production” (PMP) or the ability to build a

meaning, starting from experiences of all kinds, a kind of personal philosophy of life

(RBS , 2017).

Zohar (2000) enumerated some principles of spiritual intelligence: humility, understanding of a sense of a vocation in work and life and not only be in a profession but to fulfill a kind of call, of a mission; be driven and motivated by a vision and values ​​supported by moral principles and firm beliefs or convictions; be open to diversity and otherness by accepting others not by judging them.  

 

We take up some of Zohar and Marshall's (2000) inspired questions in relation to

spiritual intelligence: 

 

1.                  Are you comfortable in a quiet place to meditate?

2.                  Do you follow your convictions or inner voice even if it is at your own risk?

3.                  Are you motivated by ideals like helping others and serving worthy causes?

4.                  Do you feel motivated by great historical leaders and public figures like Jesus,

 Moses, Paul, Martin Luther King? 

 

   In the Bible the text of Deuteronomy 17 speaks of criteria for voting a politic leaders serving as model to be imitated, and David is considered as model of the kings but model does not mean flawless. They use a narrative identity.

 

5.                  Do you have a broader contextual view of issues and events?

6.                  Can you perceive the unsaid of the speech of others, feel their unexpressed

feelings?

7.                  Have - you a sense of awe and reverence to God in front of the greatness of

creation?

8.                  Do you believe in the multiplicity of possibilities to solve a problem or achieve 

a goal?

9.                  Do you see a problem from different angles or perspectives? 

10.              Do you seek to understand the true causes behind appearances? A tendency

to understand the why behind each phenomenon or event.

11.              Are you dissatisfied with current and popular explanations of people's

problems?

12.              Do you learn from your mistakes and those of others? Or do you hold on to

your positions.

 

13. Do you believe that your performance, talents and success come from God or from

you?

14.              Do you recognize your limitations and are you open to input from others?

1 5. Do you have a sense of responsibility to others, your community or the world in

general of where formal roles that hath assigned?

 

 

I.                   Difference between religion and spirituality

 

What is religion? Many social sciences search to define religion according many assumptions and paradigms.

For ethnologists, there are not people without religion, and religion from beginning of humanity till now had many forms. Cicero in his time spoke about relegere that is to mean a veneration to a deity, Lactance spoke of religio from the Latin verb religare to mean connect, tie, then religion is a relation with a divinity ( DOM, 2001).

 

In Eastern Asia, Chinese used the words zong and jiao connected to teachings and ancestor’s veneration, meaning also the transmission of a knowledge coming for ancestor tradition and perpetrated. Japanese talk about shukyo, an essential teaching or a catechism (Berthon and Kashio, 2000).

 

For the assiriologist Hendrick Kraemer (1956), religion is an attitude toward the reality of beyond expressed by myths, rites or some behavior.

And Schleiermacher considers religion as the desire of eternity, a “feeling of absolute dependence” (Gefühl der schlechthinnigen Abhängigkeit)” (Veldsman, 2019).

 

For sociologist like Emile Durkheim (1995), religion is a necessity for social dimension of the life. By myth and dogma, the religion socializes humanity, all the beliefs are perpetrated by tradition The necessities of existence force all human being believers and non-believers, to represent in some way the religion and take into account in all our conduct.

All sorts of things surpassing the limits of human knowledge and understanding; the supernatural is the sphere and domain of the mysterious, of the unknowable, the un-understandable. Religion attempts to explain all that which evades distinct thought in conceiving the inconceivable, in longing after the Infinite. Religion deals with things which are supernatural.

 

Meinrad Hegba an African priest tempted to explain with rationality what is viewed as supernatural or paranormal phenomena witchcraft, levitation, bilocation, doubling, telekinesis (1998).

Another way to define religion is the belief in a supreme deity, the conscious of subjects that there are  powers superior to those possessed by common men and contact with them is possible  by psychological processes, attempting to convince

them or move them, either with the aid of words (invocations, prayers), or by offerings and sacrifices. The object of religion is to regulate the relations with these special beings, and no religion exists without prayers, sacrifices, propitiatory rites (Durkheim, 1995).

Max Müller one of the founders of Religious studies (religionswissenschaft) in 1873, compared religion as the perceiving of the infinite to myth and studied Indian philosophy and Vedic religion, translated many texts of the Vedas, the Upanishads, and all of the Dhammapada (Stone, 2002).

For Ernest Troeltsch in every man there is a religious a priori ( Peguy, 1968).

Religion is based on an external belief system that focuses typically on traditions, organized doctrine, rituals, sets of customs, and specific expected behaviours that emphasizes salvation (Zohar and Marshall, 2004).

 

But what is spirituality?

Jane Dyson et al. (1997) affirms that a literature review reveals that the self, others and God or the supreme being  provide the key elements within a definition of spirituality.

Spirituality is aspect of human existence in relation with the structures of significance

which give sense and direction to a person’s life and helps to face life difficulties and

 

challenges. It is also a quest for meaning and life purpose and a sense of the holy

(Mueller ,2013).

For Guillory (1997) religion as organized belief system is experienced externally before it is experienced internally. It is an indicator of spirituality and possesses two dimensions, vertical and horizontal.

Zohar and Marshall (2004) contend that there is no necessary connection between spiritual intelligence (SQ) and religion, because spiritual intelligence is an internal, innate experience, whilst religion is an externally imposed set of beliefs.

Spiritual intelligence is considered to be the ultimate intelligence and defined as “the

intelligence with which we access our deepest meanings, values, purposes, and highest motivations” (Zohar and Marshall, 2004:3).

People can be religious by following religious rituals and ceremonies and spiritual when they feel a sense of holism, and live authentically according to a set of positive values and a higher purpose. On the other hand, there are religious people who are also spiritual because they have internalized their set of religious customs, beliefs and values.

Similarly, there may be people who are not religious (such as humanists, atheists or

agnostics) and may be very spiritual (Zohar and Marshall, 2004).

 

People do not have to be religious to be spiritual, but if they are spiritual, they can experience within spirituality outside in a religious context.

Religion can form part of spirituality but spirituality can operate without religion.

Fry and Whittington maintain that the bridge between religion and spirituality is

altruistic love and that “spirituality is necessary for religion but religion is not necessary for spirituality” (RBS, 2017).

 

Elisabeth Cornelius, quoting Kheswa's (2016: 176), points out that spirituality is to be distinguished from religiosity; spirituality is the reason for believing, while religion is the path which leads to the action of believing. Spirituality prompts you to consider that the intelligibility of the world can only be the work of a creator, but religion shows you the way to believe, for example, to confess sins, to believe in Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior, go through the waters of baptism… after believing, follow appropriate teachings to integrate a local.

 

Understanding of spirituality fall into one of three categories:

1) An either broadly or narrowly conceived; God-oriented spirituality where thought and practice are premised in theologies,

2) A world-oriented spirituality stressing one’s relationship with ecology or nature: an ecospirituality

3) A humanistic (or people-oriented) spirituality stressing human achievement or potential.

For me, all the elements (God oriented, ecospirituality and humanistic spirituality) cannot be divided. They constitute a great ensemble.

 

Another dimension of spirituality is the notion of  experience called also mystic because it goes beyond explanation.

 

J.                   Bible and spiritual intelligence

 A lot of authors who have theorized the concept of spiritual intelligence have a presupposition and a worldview of Buddhists as the founder of Regenesys Business School,  a former Buddhist monk and Zohar Dinnah, and some are as pluralistic like Nasel that combines Christianity and new age beliefs. Among the spiritual principles in connection with spiritual intelligence they developed the concept of karma called the law of karma. 

 

The law of karma shows that the effects necessarily flow from the act performed while the law of Christ is love and forgiveness, karma chains man in an infinite cycle (samsara or reincarnation). Even the human courts agree, no one can serve his sentence twice for the same offense, so why the one who discharges his sentences by dying has to be reborn to suffer again the retribution for his past acts that he ignores?  In addition, at birth the man receives the genes of both parents and cannot be the equal of the one who would have been in a previous life. 

 

Buddhist doctrine is based on four truths, birth is dukkha (suffering), old age is dukkha, sickness is dukkha, death is dukkha in short, existence is dukka. Buddhism is therefore pessimistic in its nature and curiously does not address the big existential questions like where do we come from, why are we on earth, what is the future of the world? 

 

For Buddhists, the fact that there is a world is dukkha, and if God really exists, he did not create this bad world, whereas for Christians all that God has created is good (Genesis 1:31), the negative judgment is not made on the world in its essence but on the fallen world and disfigured following sin.

 

Our presupposition is therefore biblical and Christian because science is perspectivist and has presuppositions, theories and metatheories.

The metatheory is the philosophy behind the theory, the fundamental set of ideas about how phenomena of interest in a particular field should be thought, this concept has a lot of overlap with the concept paradigm  used by Thomas Kuhn and considered as being the metatheory, the theory, the methodology, and the ethos, all combined, of a discipline or specialty. Paradigm has a broader meaning than metatheory, but a metatheory is core to any paradigm, and define a paradigm in many manners             (Bates, 2005).

 

The Bible uses various Hebrew and Greek terms to speak of intelligence: “binah”, “hokhmah”, “phronesis”, “sunesis”, “noûs”, “Sophia”. 

This plurality of concepts is an indicator of multifaceted in intelligence.

The Hebrew word binah designates intelligence, discernment, the ability to understand. From the word biyn according to Strong's biblical dictionary, to speak of the fact of perceiving, of knowing by the spirit. Knowing how to take care, implied by the people under your responsibility. 

But also discernment, and in terms of conduct, prudence and discretion.

Pharaoh found in Joseph intelligence (binah) than in anyone in Egypt (Genesis 41, 39). 

In Jewish rabbis, it is deductive reasoning, the understanding of an idea from another idea, a rational process to develop ideas to the maximum unlike hokhmah which comes from divine inspiration and it is not rational.

 

The word hokhmah also evokes the know-how of craftsmen capable of cutting stones, setting up works, creating and innovating.

Its primary meaning is to decide, to judge, to be technically skilled and to know how to discern and judge. Used seven times in the Hebrew Bible, once in Esther ( 7, 25) and six times in Daniel, one of the greatest wises and high biblical politicians, hyper competent and irreproachable from a moral point of view. We will come back to him later. 

In the field of leadership it manifests itself in the search for justice, compassion and mercy towards the poor. And this is what Salomon sought because of his inexperience in public management.

 

In the New Testament written in Greek there is phronesis which is practical intelligence and in the realm of artistic and poetic creativity. Aristotle used it as well as modern philosophers like Paul Ricoeur to talk about the moral incommensurability of human nature (Wall, 2003: 317-341).   Phronesis as practical intelligence is opposed to episteme which is scientific knowledge of a theoretical type. It is used in Luke 1, 17 to speak of the wisdom of the righteous which is a walk in accordance with the divine law prescribed by the fathers and in Ephesians 1,8 in the couple wisdom and intelligence which allow to understand the mysteries or inaccessible truths to reason but which require a revelation or an illumination, but also to understand the plan of God and to conform to it because it is he who fixes the reason of our existence, he is our creator. For Strong's dictionary of the Bible, there is the idea of ​​insight, intellectual and moral insight, but also virtue and prudence.

 

Pastor Chris Oyakhilome talks about phronesis in his daily devotional book” Rapsody of Realities” of July 22, 2013 as a force that controls whoever possesses it, superior wisdom like that God gave Solomon (1 Kings 4,29). 

Phronesis makes it possible to understand the things of God at the right time, and gives you an excellent state of mind in everything to conform word and deed, at the right time and in the right line. It preserves from error by making the right choices in all areas, and having a sharp judgment. This allows us to move forward in everything we do. 

 

Sunesis is according to Pastor Chris Oyakhilome (2013), a critical intelligence, the ability to analyze concepts and their relationship, which presupposes an acquittal and a penetration of understanding of any action and that gives personal development.

Sunesis is used several times in the Bible (Colossians 1 ,9 ; Mark 12,23; Ephesians 3,4; Luke 2,47) , to speak of the perfection of intelligence or spiritual intelligence.  

It comes from the Greek suniemi for ability to put facts together with holistic understanding by joining implied truths. Sunesis is also a search for justice for all, for the common good, for the general interest.

 

Noûs as intelligence allows a social critique of reality,  represents in classical Greek thought and intelligence, the ability to apprehend the external world, but also theoretical and creative reflection (Romans 1, 18-32 ; 12 ,1-2 ; 1 Corinthians 14,15 ) where it plays an important role in contact with God in personal prayer in addition to glossolalia.  It is used 22 times in the New Testament and this number echoes the work of the cross, when the light of God illuminates us then we understand how what the great German theologian Moltmann writes: " The crucified God " (2015), where the cross is not only pain of the Son but also the love of the Father who suffers in order to give hope to the world of a better future, that is to say the kingdom of God. And with this hope to commit here and now to changing the conditions of the inhuman economically, politically,               socially...

 Finally, the vision of the cross makes it possible to understand the need to preserve human life in a world more and more brutalized by the spirit of wars and violence. 

 

The Sophia is the supreme intelligence, as found in God, and manifested in the creation, redemption, and government of the world.

It is also the fullness of intelligence, erudition, the diversified knowledge of divine and human things which one acquires by the experience of life, which is found expressed among the ancients through proverbs and maxims. It makes it possible to interpret dreams and visions in order to give good advice. It is the rhetorical beauty to convince his interlocutor or the public. It is also an address in the field of business and morally prudence in the conduct of things.

Sophia is the antipodes of political cunning, of stratagems of conquest of power, with false and demagogic speech. Instead of using tactic for manipulation leaders must seek Sophia from God.

 

In short, through these different biblical concepts, we can identify the following elements in relation to intelligence: 

The multiplicity of intelligence is emphasized in the Bible and a link exists between intelligence, problem solving and sense of innovation, good moral conduct and knowledge of God because he is the source of all science. This intelligence also has to do with the knowledge of the times and the particular way of acting there, the understanding of visions to advise decision-makers.

And the dimension of know-how which is pronounced to the detriment of knowledge alone.

 

A link can be established with the notion of discernment of spirits which consists of seeing in the spiritual world, in distinguishing what is false and true in the word and the act as well as the spirit which hides there.

For the prophets, it is a matter of seeing and participating in what is done in heaven or in the spiritual sphere and consequently affecting the course of history and the governance of human affairs.

Abraham sat in the council of God to influence the ruling of the judge of all the earth regarding Sodom and Gomorrah ( Genesis 18,22-33), the prophet Micah said I saw God sit in his council afterwards the fate of King Ahab was sealed ( 1Kings 22,19). He participated as a simple observer; the prophet Elijah told Ahab I stand before God so I sit in his council to decide on the march of this country (1Kings 17, 1). 

Jeremiah asks the false prophets the question: who then participated in his council to listen and see his word (Jeremiah 23, 18-22)? What is curious here, the prophet of God speaks of seeing word instead of hearing? Can somebody see word? John answers this question in telling in the logos hymn that the word is a man and God: Jesus (John 1).

 

These prophets who see in the spiritual can guide decision-makers at all levels like King Uzziah who worked with the prophet Zechariah who had the intelligence of visions, thus helping the king to decrypt the coded messages of dreams, visions but also help him to work in spiritual intelligence which will make his reign prosperous (2 chronicles 26, 3-5).

 

2 Samuel 14,17 speaks of David as an angel of God (hamalak haelohim) to show that he is a member of the heavenly court as well as the angels.

 The discernment of the spirit allows not to be mistaken when it is necessary to decide as decision makers or leaders even in the small decisions of the daily life, also it preserves from errors in terms of direction and choice to be made. The discernment of spirits makes it possible to understand the spiritual world, its principles, its functioning, and its composition but also to make a spiritual analysis or reading of the facts and events of life.

With this ability we discover the hidden dimension of things, and we know how to read time (why such and such a thing at such and such a time and not before or after), it allows to make a connection of apparently unrelated facts because in the spiritual world the chance does not exist, everything has a meaning, everything has a cause and the hand of God which directs things even in anonymity. There are places haunted by evil spirits like bewitched offices, cursed houses. When you are there you make bad decisions, we feel oppressions.

 

Lisa M. Beardsley (2004) affirms that spiritual intelligence comes by revelation through God’s Spirit, which expresses “spiritual truths in spiritual words.   The man without the Spirit does not accept the things that come from the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him, and he cannot understand them, because they are spiritually discerned.” (1 Corinthians 2,9-14).  The Holy Spirit illuminates what otherwise is inaccessible and incomprehensible               (1 Corinthians 2, 10-14; Ephesians 1,17-19).  No human intelligence is more important than spiritual intelligence.

 

Among abilities of intelligence for Lisa M. Beardsley (2004), there is the capacity to discern the phenomenon unique to a specific intelligence (whether color, musical sounds, spatial shapes, quantifiable objects, words, or physical, nonverbal cues).  Spiritual matters are noted to be spiritually discerned but opaque to others (1 Corinthians 2, 14). Having spiritual intelligence is like having the eyes of heart opened and enlightened.  

Another core operation is concept formation.  Concepts, values, and sentiments must be assimilated for an understanding and mastery to develop to the degree that the individual develops fluency and can be creative with domain symbols and their systems (whether musical notation and theory, numbers and theorems, grammar and syntax, or spiritual concepts and theology).  Immersion in the domain is critical.  There is no substitute for learning well.  It takes time to internalize the domain; its symbolic elements, rules, and notation.  Creativity and the competence to form systems and concepts, like critical thinking, require a great deal of content mastery.  Just as it is not possible to think critically about nothing, creativity must find expression through a domain.  

 

Csikszentmihalyi (1996) goes on to explain that creativity is the cultural equivalent of the biological process of adaptation.  In this analogy, cultural genes are “memes” in that they are the units of information that we must learn if culture is to continue.  Memes are numbers, language, recipes, theories, stories, etc. that are passed on and which the creative person changes.  If enough see the change as valuable, the change becomes part of culture. Creativity depends on prior knowledge that must be learned before it can be changed.  It may not take 10 years, but domain mastery is needed before an individual can manipulate symbols in new ways that solve problems or apply to novel situations.  

But Jesus with spiritual intelligence demonstrated domain mastery and the ability to synthesize and reformulate spiritual truths as a 12-year old in the temple, where everyone was amazed about his level of spiritual understanding (Luke 2, 46-47).  When Jesus taught about the kingdom of God, his spiritual intelligence astounded those who listened to him:  "How did this man get such learning without having studied?" (John 7, 15).

  In Matthew they puzzled when “he began teaching the people in their synagogue, and they were amazed. ‘Where did this man get this wisdom and these miraculous powers?" (Matthew 13, 54).

 

 

 

 

How spiritual intelligence is measured in the Bible?

All kind of intelligence is seen by external validation, for example Goleman for example, believed   that success in the business is a manifestation of emotional intelligence into someone.  

 For the Bible the spiritual intelligence is seen in by its fruits: “the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness” (Galatians 5, 22).  

In matter of behavior, indicators are like being even-tempered (Proverbs 17, 27) , quick to learn from God’s precepts and revelation (Psalms 119, 73; 104, 130); feedback and discipline (Proverbs 15,32).  

They are also able to apply what they have learned to novel situations, to solve problems, and extend existing knowledge beyond itself; the ability to solve problems and create new, contextualized, correct responses is a hallmark of spiritual intelligence. 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER TREE: CASE STUDIES

A.    Biblical cases

 

I. Biblical case one: Joseph in Egypt

1.                  Context of Joseph narration

Inspired by French philosopher Jacques Derrida, Yiu-Wing Fung (1999) show a binary opposition in deconstructing the Joseph’s story. In this epistemological perspective, there is a conceptual oppositions such as original/derivative, central/marginal, internal/external, transcendental/empirical, universal/particular, good/evil, self/other, lord/slave, life/death, brother/foreigner, and knowledge/ignorance, presence/absence…It constitutes a strategy of reading.

 

2.                  Spiritual intelligence in the life of Joseph

a.                  Visionary (by dream and purveyance), man of solution called in French “personne-ressource”, an expert, a resource man that brings transformation in organizations. In his teenager, he received dreams for his bright future and it brings many struggles in his life but he overcame. In the book of Genesis 37, 19 his brothers qualified him as “master of dreams”, an expert in dreams.

 

A dream in spiritual dimension is like a prophecy, a prediction of the future, and a medium to understand what is happening and will happen in your own life or in the world. Doctor Martin Luther King Jr pronounced in front of a crowd a sentence in a speech on August 28^th 1963: “I have a dream”.                                                                                   It was a prophecy for transformation of black condition and suppression of racial segregation.

A dream in management or leadership is like a vision of the desired future, it moves to action for its materialization. 

For Burt Nanus (1995) best-seller author in leadership, a vision is part of a continuing process of orienting an organization to the emerging realities of the outside world. Without it, people are perishing because they lack direction as said in the Bible.

 

 

 

 

b.                 Dream interpreter (supreme wisdom from God): Egypt had reputation of a great country of science, knowledge and wisdom. Many work of scholars in Egyptology like Cheick Anta Diop ; « Antériorité des civilisations nègres: mythe ou vérité historique? ( 1967) ; Les Fondements économiques et culturels d'un état fédéral d'Afrique noire (1960 ) ; Egypte ancienne et Afrique noire ( 1989) ; Théophile Obenga L'Egypte, la Grèce et l'école d'Alexandrie: Histoire interculturelle dans l'antiquité-Aux sources égyptiennes de la philosophie grecque (2005) ;  L'Afrique dans l'Antiquité-Egypte pharaonique Afrique (1973) ; La géométrie égyptienne: contribution de l'Afrique antique à la mathématique mondiale (1995) show the contribution of Egypt in many scientific fields , some sciences was invented by old Egyptians for example the geometry which was a sacred science of priests, and used for construction of pyramids.

 

Indeed, Winkler Andreas (2011) asserts that Egyptian priests and magicians was viewed as wises and specialist; the dreams was one of way they communicated with spirits and interpret their will. By divination and astrology, they predicted the future. They could interpret divine oracles, the movement of the celestial bodies like stars, moon. They were supposed possessing calendars of good and bad Day and the competency in chronomancy. But Joseph had another level of wisdom, the binah. He interpreted as prisoner two dreams and what he predicted to dreams interpretation arrived with precision (Genesis 40, 1-22). Two years after, Pharaoh had a dream but all council of wise men was not able to give him a true explanation because of their limitation in term of intelligence, wisdom and spirituality (Genesis 41, 1-8). Then Joseph was invented as a man of solution and gave him signification of his two dreams concerning economic life of this old superpower. 

 

c.                   Ethical values:

- humility ( nevertheless he owned a higher level in interpreting dream, he spoke of God as source of this not his ego. He was not a narcissistic leader according to Freud category who often exhibits arrogance, dominance, self sufficiently, overconfident in their own abilities (Winkler, 2010).

 

- Integrity and loyalty: even if the wife of his boss sexually harassed him, he refused to commit sin in having sexual relation with her because of his integrity and loyalty to his boss Potiphar. Only profound spirituality can help live in integrity and loyalty.

- Forgiveness: he was sold as slave and hate by his brothers; he exercised no vengeance against them but loved them.  He took care of them without grudge as a shepherd in front of his flock.  He understood that trials are a school for preparing heart to great responsibility (Genesis 50, 18-21).

 

d.                 Spiritual interpretation of events  

All events were interpreted with a spiritual meaning.                        

Genesis 50, 19-21: Joseph said to them, Fear not, for am I in the place of God? As for you, you meant evil against me; but God meant it for good, to bring it about that many people should be kept alive, as they are today. So do not fear, I will provide for you and your little ones. Thus he reassured them and comforted them. For him the circumstances are under God’s control, and what happen in life is not casual, the invisible hand of the master of the history in present.

Men intentions are opposed to God’s intention, the evil changed to good. Men are instruments of God to accomplish his design.

 

We can see in Joseph’s story a foreshadowing of Jesus death and resurrection. His pit symbolizing the condemnation in death and the throne of Egypt is enthronization in the right hand of the Father.

 Pulse  Jeffrey (2017: 177-210) showed others images of death and resurrection such as  the separation with family and their reunion,  three day and three stage separation and restoration , the barren womb and the opening of the womb , being cast into a pit/sheol and being raised up/lifted up,  going down to Egypt and up to Canaan/the promised land,  the slavery and freedom , the famine and deliverance, the seeds/planting and the growth/fertility, the exile and the return from exile, stripped and clothed.

 

 

For Christian to go down into the pit of water, and being brought up in the water symbolizes the new life and its confession by baptismal water.

 

3.                  His managerial and leadership impact

a.                   Joseph and Supply chain management and the Logistic:

Yossi Sheffi Elisha Gray (2017) thinks that Joseph is the most brilliant logistician of the biblical age.

Joseph’s exceptional forecasting and planning abilities put him on a fast track to promotions. He ascended rapidly from the role of prisoner/superintendent in an Egyptian jail, to Pharaoh’s Chief Logistics Officer with “Prince” in his title. At the peak of his career, the man was second only to Pharaoh.

Joseph’s leadership qualities were visible even in prison : “And the keeper of the prison committed to Joseph’s hand all the prisoners” (Genesis 39, 22).

There he interpreted prophetically the dreams of Pharaoh’s former chief butler and chief baker and all his predictions was realized. Pharaoh looked for a supplier with a proven track record after his dream. Joseph seized the kairos and put his theory of economical cycle of seven years to practice :

“Behold, there come seven years of great plenty throughout all the land of Egypt:

And there shall arise after them seven years of famine; and all the plenty shall be

forgotten in the land of Egypt; and the famine shall consume the land” (Genesis

40,29-30).

 

He gave to Pharaoh a plan based on inventory theory using a single period newsvendor model and an organization framework: “Now therefore let Pharaoh look out a man discreet and wise, and set him over the land of Egypt…, and let him appoint officers over the land, and take up the fifth part of the land of Egypt in the seven plenteous years. And let them gather all the food of those good years that come, and lay up corn under the hand of Pharaoh, and let them keep food in the cities. And that food shall be for store to the land against the seven years of famine” (Genesis 41:33-36).

 

 

His plan was based on locating warehouses and distribution centers in every Egyptian city.

After building his decentralized warehousing system, the scheme worked very well and during the famine years Egyptians did not suffer but prospered and international sales territories were set and global supply chains were even established with foreign countries.

 

Some principles learnt from Joseph’s action:

First, to avoid supply chain disruptions by the importance of forecasting and interpretation of various warning signals; second, the role of redundancy in general and especially safety stock in allowing the supply chain to keep delivering goods under adverse conditions; third, the important role of regulatory agencies in preventing abuses of monopoly power – even if it comes out of brilliant business acumen.

Finally, Joseph’s story demonstrates that good logistics skills are an important path to an upper management position. All this was the result of a spiritual gift, the binah.

b.                 A man with high business acumen:

Guy Brandon (2015) thinks that like Jacob, Joseph was an operator, a business with a business acumen, knowing how to use his gifts and talents,  to seize opportunities so that he rises from prison to a position of prominence as powerful man in a foreign country.

II. Biblical case two: Bezalel

Master Sergeant Russell E. Gehrlein (2018) quoting Gene Veith, in his book, “God at Work: Your Christian Vocation in All of Life”, states that this text of building tabernacle is “the first explicit treatment of the doctrine of vocation in the Bible.”

 

Ex. 25, 8-31:11 lays out Yahweh’s detailed instructions to Moses regarding the design and construction of the tabernacle, its components, and the priests’ attire.  It tells us a great deal about spirituality of work.  Building this portable temple would require a variety of skilled craftsmen who were empowered by the very Spirit of God.                                                                The results of their work would enable the priests to serve as Yahweh required so that He would dwell among them.

 

What makes this passage especially relevant to the topic of spirituality of work? 

There are several implications.

First, as God describes His plan to Moses, this project would require a variety of skilled craftsmen and craftswomen.  These chosen people with special occupations that Yahweh called upon were artisans and construction workers.  These are the kinds of talented people that would be needed: carpenters (no, not the brother-sister pop duo from the 70’s), furniture makers, metalworkers, and jewelers, those who could make curtains and garments, embroiders, and even perfume makers.  All of these laborers were necessary to get the tabernacle done safely, on time, and under budget.                                                                              The work of these individuals would matter to God.  The “big picture” they had to keep in mind was that the tabernacle would be the centerpiece of the Israelites’ home in the wilderness. Wherever they would be called to go, the presence of Yahweh would rest on this portable temple. 

Next, we meet Bezalel and his worthy assistant, Oholiab.  These two men were appointed by God to take charge of this huge project and to teach, coach, and mentor those who would help construct it.  With these construction workers running around with their hard hats, they would need supervision. 

Moses could not oversee this task directly.  He had learned the value of delegating important tasks to trustworthy men back. The presence of the Spirit of God on these men enabled them to do the job well, with the strength that He provided, and in the right attitude, in order to meet the extremely high standards that Yahweh required.

Yahweh acknowledges that He enabled His chosen workforce to be able to complete this monumental task: “I have given skill to all the craftsmen to make everything I have commanded you.” (Exodus 31,6).  Every one of them worked naturally, yet supernaturally.

At the end, this collection of supermen and superwomen completed the job, as described by Exodus 39,32-42.  The entire community would experience many blessings as a result of their Spirit-filled efforts as co-workers with Yahweh.  The last chapter of the book of Exodus tells us that after the tabernacle was completely set up and operational, “the glory of the LORD filled the tabernacle.”

The connection to the “creation mandate” in Genesis 1, 26-38 may not be clear, but let us see how it relates.  Adam was called to work under God’s authority to subdue the earth and expand God’s presence beyond the borders of Eden.  A major component of the work of subduing is taking the elements that God created in the earth and harvesting and harnessing them to feed our families and build stuff for the common good: shelters, roads, cities, and culture. 

The abundance of trees, rocks, animals, etc., could be used by Adam and his successors as God’s co-workers to meet the needs of His people and bring glory to Him.  The Israelites took these raw materials out of the earth and subdued them to fashion a tabernacle where God could be worshipped as they journeyed towards the Promised Land.

This episode about Spirit-filled tabernacle construction workers also clearly ties in with the New Testament concept of spiritual gifts or other talents given to believers that can be empowered by the Holy Spirit to build up the body of Christ.   

Many parallels can be found between the construction of tabernacle the re-creation accounts in Genesis and Exodus. Noah spends 40 days and nights awaiting re-creation (Genesis 7,12) and sets up an altar afterwards (Genesis 8,20),

Moses spends 40 days and nights listening to God’s instructions for the new life which awaits the newly liberated people of Israel (Exodus 24,18;  34,28), and then he descends to supervise the construction of the tabernacle (Exodus 25-31;35-40). A connection can be established between the work of God and the work of his people.

We can see Bezalel as a project manager filled with Spirit and hokhmah. He was able to bring innovation, creativity and inventiveness in wilderness, in time of crisis and keep motivated the workers: a spiritual leader.

III. Biblical case three: Daniel and the spiritual intelligence in context of workplace

Daniel serves as example of a man of faith. He was in Babylon which was a great empire like Christians work today in empires (political empires such as superpower nations, economical and financial empires such as multinationals…)

According to Theology of Work Project (2010), it is possible to work with spiritual principles and values, and the same time work effectively and Daniel is an example.

Daniel was among the exiles brought to Babylon, and is called to work in a position of influence at the political level but in an environment hostile to God with occult practices.

Should we leave this corrupt, pagan Babylonian government organization and seek only the organizations of the children of God?

He chooses to work there while having a public life devoted to God.

But above all, Daniel and his three Jewish brothers were selected according to criteria decreed by the king of Babylon such as physical ability (beauty and flawless), language skills and others in order to follow one and

Leadership training for being able to work in the royal court. The training was three years (Daniel 1).

A challenge both on the possibility of embracing moral corruption and idolatry by praising a man the emperor.

They enrolled in Babylonian education, but set limits to guard against assimilation into pagan culture. Daniel resisted the rich diet that was compulsory for all trainees, refusing to defile himself in (Daniel 1,8).

How Daniel works with his supervisor is a vital part of the story.

Some Christians, when asked to do something against their conscience, they criticize or they adopt a conflicting position which seems to make them holier in their own view but Daniel found a third way, recognizing that his boss was sympathetic,

but was in a difficult position.

Many secular workplaces (but certainly not all) offer a variety of opportunities such as personal gain, a good salary, job security, professional success and stature, comfortable working conditions and creative and interesting work. In themselves, these are good things.

 

But they tempt us with two serious evils:

-                    The danger of becoming so in love with good material things that we no longer wanting to risk these things by defending what God requires of us;

-                    The spiritual danger of believing that good things result of our own work or genius, or as a result of our service to another power than God. In addition, the workplace often requires accommodations which, in particular, themselves are not good, such as deception, prejudice, mistreatment of poor and helpless, yielding to unhealthy desires, taking advantage of others in their moments of need and many more.

Adopting a modest lifestyle, so that the attachment to money, prestige or power don't stop yourself from risking your job or career if you have to something contrary to the commandments, values ​​or virtues of God. Despite the achievement of heyday of Babylonian education, position and wealth, Daniel and his friends were humble.

Is it possible to thrive at work while following God? People in all kinds of workplaces face this question every day, and many find the answer so difficult that they are tempted to abandon. Daniel, the central figure in the Book of Daniel, faces the question under extreme circumstances, provide and give examples that may be useful in today’s workplaces.

The book of Daniel provides some principles for workplace :

-It is possible for Christians to practice their profession in non-Christian and even hostile environments.

-The life of prayer and communion with God must not be interrupted. Daniel prayed three times a day despite his responsibilities and leadership (Daniel 6,10).

-Knowing how to create connections or associate with others to support each other (Daniel 2,49). But also exchange executives share their professional concerns in relation to the Christian faith.

- Know how to maintain good relations with non-believers in the workplace, not to judge them but to witness to them faith in Christ while being a model.

-To be distinguished by competence and expertise as children of light who excel in everything.

-To maintain a firm faith in spite of persecutions of peers and chiefs. This kind of faith brings miracle and transformation in organizational leadership

G.                Impact of spiritual intelligence: empirical studies

Spiritual intelligence has many impact and some studies will prove it.

A study conducted in France in a context where rationality is the cultural ideal.

The spirituality of leaders must be placed in a context marked of things are to be in conformity with reason. The reason, by its Latin etymology ratio designates in the first place the notion of calculation, of computation, even of count. To be rational, according to standard economic theory, is to be able to solve an individual program and to conform to it, it is to be able to maximize its utility under constraint, if it is appropriate to choose in a context where several possibilities present themselves.

 

The France is heir to the philosophy of the Enlightenment, which sees the triumph of reason over the notion of faith or belief.

French leaders emphasize more the rationality in their work, having as a model that favored the deduction to induction, taking decision when it's coherent, logical , meaningful, and are poles apart from what is empirical , inductive, irrational or even passionate.  

To understand the link and the impact of spirituality in the exercise of leadership of large French companies aged over 45 years, living and working in a context of rationality,  a study carried out between 2009-2010. Among the variables considered there were gender (14 men and 6 women), the function performed (CEO,  GD,  DHR large groups , 3 of SME )…

The difficulties encountered along the course professional, the reactions and the means that were implemented for the overcome each of these difficult situations, and the place of spirituality.

Among the results, a first group of leaders who have low rationality and low spirituality, they wonder about the limits of rationality without going into other possibilities.

The second group of leaders has strong rationality and weak spirituality, spirituality being equated with religion and all its deviations.

The third group of leaders, have a weak rationality and strong spirituality, when it is necessary to decide they do not take as criterion the rationality but to the spirituality and its dignity taking into account also the sensitivity of the others to understand the others, to have the intuition and creates confidence in others and makes them dream.

The last group is made up of leaders with strong rationality and strong spirituality , they act in a kind of synchronization of two spheres, working in a holistic approach of sustainable development and as the questions of spirituality are not yet present in the day companies in France, some leaders feel a lack, a void.

 For the interviewed leaders spiritual enlightenment delivers significant resources that help them to face hardships but those who not practice spirituality uses drugs in difficult moment for example.

 This work makes it possible to identify a certain number of results, in particular how spirituality and rationality come into tension both on an individual and collective level, in terms of behavioral preferences, and of the sexes (man - woman). The development of the spirituality of the leaders questioned comes up against rationality. Rationality can constitute a limit to the development of spirituality. 

In France, for example, society sets up rationality as an ideal. Historically, rationality has been a recipe for getting out of the confusion of beliefs in the Middle Ages and made possible to offer more justice and security, reduction of suffering, lengthening of life, it could therefore become a model for evaluations of people. 

The problem is that this paradigm underlies mistrust, intolerance towards anything that deviates from dogma despite the evolution of rationality towards taking into account its successive limits.

 Spiritual enlightenment comes through the momentary repression of rationality. 

The research allowed us to observe the spiritual progression of exemplary leaders and some of the effects in terms of professional effectiveness. The French leaders questioned live, because of the cultural importance attributed to rationality, an awareness which directs them in the first place towards rationality. French women leaders appear very sensitive and open to spirituality. The rise in power of spirituality implies avenues for extending the understanding of the phenomenon: in terms of its intensity, durability, manifestations, possible support, and organizational consequences.

Effective leadership is based on the synthesis of these three currents: sharing, management of emotions and the development of spirituality.       

The results of this research show that the spiritual leader draws his resources in his education and the professional values ​​to which   he believes. More precisely, it draws its strength   forgiveness, charity, self-care and others, creative dedication and welcoming others. Yet talking about spirituality in the company remains a challenge.

 

 Women are more interested than men  through the practice of spirituality what to trust in your intuition remains a pledge to access  more easily to a  spirituality the group of women who bring spirituality very much to the fore and do not hesitate to appeal to any external possibility of development. Many women leaders across the borders of France to train. They denounce the abuses of the ideal of rationality, which appears as the mark of a male stereotype. Male leaders are more comfortable talking about spirituality when they have

experienced the development of grassroots religious faith. Unlike the women, the French male leaders interviewed are not ready to deal with spirituality in the workplace because spirituality (due to the religious connotation no doubt) appears to them as a private matter (Catherine Voynnet-Fourboul ).       

 

Fry (2003, 2005) conducted research in certain public and private organizations such as schools, the military units, large and small organizations public, private and social  and its results show that there is a very positive influence the spiritual leadership of the quality of life at work, commitment, the productivity and growth.

 Amram's (2009) study population consisted of 252 participants located in the SanFrancisco and San Jose areas in California. The self-report ISIS short form demonstrated internal reliability yielding a Cronbach's alpha of 92. As the purpose of the study was to prove that emotional intelligence and spiritual intelligence influence leadership effectiveness , each chief executive officer (CEO) participant also completed “a 16-item, “the FFM 10-item personality inventory (TIPI)” and demographic information regarding self and company. Staff respondents of theCEOs had a different set of instruments to provide feedback regarding their

perception of their CEO. The resulting data confirmed that “the correlation between

 

self-reported spiritual intelligence and leadership effectiveness rated by the staff was significant (Amram 2009; Linda Hildebrant 2011).

 

For  Linda Hindembrant the organizational benefits of spiritual leadership include increased organizational performance; intrinsic employee job satisfaction and involvement ; higher employee performance resulting in improved customer and higher rates of return on investments.

 

The impact of a spiritual organizational culture translates not only to the integrity of the organization but also to the financial returns from improved performance and customer satisfaction.

One of the most important benefits of spiritual intelligence is that it improves decision-making capabilities. A key requirement of a manager is to make decisions. The complexity of decision making seems to increase with one's seniority. Spiritual intelligence enables people to make decisions because they have a clear sense of purpose and principles by which they operate (Regenesys BS 2017; Watson et al. 2018) 

 

Lisa M. Beardsley (2004) writes that an emerging literature found positive correlations between spirituality and health outcomes, indicating a promising future for the psychometric, and empirical investigation of spiritual intelligence.  These studies find that in general, the higher the measures of spirituality, religiosity, and proxy or correlated measures for those constructs, the better it is for health.  Intelligence is plural as attested by the works of Howard Gardner and spiritual intelligence has all scientific characteristics to be considered as a category of intelligence.

 

Even in the Bible the plurality is demonstrated and its impact as in the case of Joseph the innovator, Bezalel the manager of macroproject of building in crisis time, Daniel the politician. It is the supreme intelligence and leaders are invited to make a shift from rationality to spirituality. The more leaders of organizations will use spiritual intelligence, the more leaders and followers will experience satisfaction, joy, accomplishment.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SECOND PART: ANALYZE AND understanding OF LACK OF IMPACT OF AFRICAN ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER four: AFRICAN LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT

 

The second part of this dissertation  contains also three chapters. The first one deals with leadership development in Africa.

 

Why Africans leaders lack impact? The response of this question could be found in

 

the question: How leaders are developed and trained in Africa? 

 

As definition, leadership development is the “expansion of a person's capacity to be

 

effective in leadership roles and processes”( Marco Tavanti 2006).

 

One of reason is the way leaders are developed in this continent. We will see this

 

problem and propose a model of school as an attempt of solution.

 

 

A. History of training in Africa

 

Training in Africa can be divided into 3 periods: Pre-colonial, colonial and post

 

colonial according to Kabuaya Banza (2013).

 

 

During this period, much of the education and training of young people was

 

informal, drawing on the model of the behaviors of older people in society or their

 

exemplary lives.

 

The learning process was directly linked to the working model in the company. These

 

young people were to work together for the good of their people, according to their

 

respective age group. Apart from informal education, some formal education has

 

been offered in technical fields. It was linked to the objectives of the company, the

 

teaching being limited to certain periods of the life of each individual, such as

 

initiation rites or of passage to adulthood or of age. In many African societies there

 

were circumcision ceremonies for boys and initiation rituals for both sexes. But before

 

that, a teaching program was organized. Formal education was also organized, for

 

example to become a member of a new brotherhood.

 

As the mode of production evolved towards feudalism in Africa, new functionalities

 

emerged in the educational model incorporating specialization. Apart from hunting

 

and religion, the division of labor was also known for example it took people to

 

master the techniques of working iron, others the manufacture of leather, fabrics,

 

pottery ...

 

The need development of the army led some peoples to formal education

 

in this area, as in Dahomey, Rwanda, Zululand ...

 

 

Schooling in Africa was linked to religion, so in Islamic countries it was education

 

Koranic and Christian Ethiopia education was designed to train priests and monks.

 

Muslim education was particularly extensive at the primary level, and it was also

 

available at the secondary and university levels. In Egypt there was the AL-Azhar

 

University, in Morocco the University of Fez and in Mali the University of Timbuktu –

 

all testimonies of the high level of education attained in Africa before the intrusion

 

of the colonizers.

 

 

In colonial times, the Christian missions were largely responsible for the education for

 

the orientation of the Congolese during this period in order to effectively fulfill the

 

mission of civilization. The Catholic missions organized a practical, vocational and

 

religious seminar, an educational system similar to that of the Protestant missions.

 

Motivated by the assumption that blacks are intellectually less endowed than whites,

 

therefore an elite education should not be given to blacks. Thus the Protestant

 

missions offered a course in animal husbandry, hygiene, civic and moral education to

 

Congolese learners just to help them become good citizens of their community, on an

 

ethical basis. W. E. B. Dubois, Marcus Garvey and R. J. Challis criticized these ideas

 

preventing Africans from being able to access higher education, and therefore not to

 

become political leaders in their country.

 

Education was not designed to give young people confidence and self-esteem as

 

nationals of the black continent but for young people.

 

de-Africanize and Europeanize according to the level of their education. The more

 

you have a higher diploma the more you are uprooted and alienated.

 

 

As a result of this conditioning, one had to appropriate the Western habit by eating,

 

dressing or behaving in a completely different way from one's countrymen; also

 

despise, mistreat and exploit his compatriots. Those who studied were categorized as

 

civilized or assimilated so their newly acquired civilization made them different from

 

others to qualify as assimilated to Europeans. The results of such education are

 

disastrous to this day (Kabuaya Banza 2013).

 

 

In the postcolonial period, just a few former British colonies colleges. There was not a

 

single university in French territories, only two universities in DR Congo (Lovanium

 

University of Kinshasa founded in 1954 and The Official University of Congo in 1956).

 

Therefore, there were only a very small number of educated people at independence.

 

And worse, long after official independence, African states continue to provide

 

education, initially created to ensure systematic control and exploitation of the

 

human and material resources of the African continent. Ka  Mäna quoted by

 

Kabuaya Banza observes that despite the political independence of the Congo in

 

1960, the country's education system remains extroverted, that is to say above all

 

oriented towards knowledge and foreign interests, which makes it very alienating.

 

He thus circulates mentalities and behaviors developed by colonial, neocolonial and

 

global visionaries who have shaped the people into a kind of peoples and leaders as

 

parrots, lacking in creativity or confidence in personal initiatives.

 

The lack of creativity, the spirit of dependence and the ignorance that are direct

 

consequences of the colonial education system prevented African leaders in

 

independent countries from thinking of something new and better for the

 

transformation of the continent.

 

 

However there is an exceptional case identified by Ka Mäna. This is the Tokombéré

 

project in northern Cameroon, aimed at integrating the school into the general social

 

structure where the family, religions and sanitation collaborate in order to free spirits

 

and strongly promote transformation initiatives based on intellectual, ethical and

 

spiritual values. Here, the principle of mobilization for a global transformation of

 

mental and behavioral structures, based on a deep link between spirituality, health,

 

education and socio-political engagement was seriously at work (Kabuaya Banza

 

2013).

 

 

Despite the multiplication of the number of universities in a country such as DR

 

Congo, empowerment programs for the necessary transformation continued to be

 

lacking.

 

The numerical increase in studies noted above at the same time required significant

 

support in moral education for the development of effective leadership and having

 

the potential for the socio-political transformation of the country (Kabuaya Banza).

 

Today we speak of sexually transmitted points (points received at the end of the

 

academic year sometimes with distinction by someone, generally girls in exchange

 

for sex with a member of the academic body), politically transmitted diplomas (

 

generally the diplomas received by politicians who do not attend university but

 

become licensed, doctors by giving money or advantages to university professors such

 

as a political post in a cabinet, an appointment…).

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

B.Training contextualization

 

Vanessa Iwowo (2016) writes that mainstream theoretical perspectives have shaped contemporary learning interventions on the continent, but are increasingly

challenged by African renaissance views that critique this approach as a form of western ideological hegemony and an extension of the colonial project. The leadership underdevelopment of  African organizations are always salient.

 

Over time, a large number of voices have addressed the question of how to tackle the expressed desire for such development in this context.

The first draws on the mainstream Anglo-American theoretical perspectives that have over time shaped global leadership and management education interventions and which have been progressively termed ‘western’; the second builds on criticisms that draw on the views of African renaissance scholars who critique the mainstream as lacking universality, suggesting it is merely a form of western intellectual hegemony, more or less an extension of the colonial project continuing to persist long after the dismantling of Empire. They think that contemporary management and leadership education markedly bears the cultural hegemonic imprints. The leadership models inherited by African organizations are colonial in character and process with a relation of master-servant.

 

Leadership in AngloAmerican orientations of society have been popularized through the model of MBA.

In light of the above, there have been several calls for a more indigenised model of leadership in Africa. It is further argued that such indigenous leadership education is necessary to build the much needed values of patriotism and nationalism, which is a pre-requisite to moving Africa forward.

 

It is also necessary to integrate African leadership philosophy such as ubuntu based on the idea of reconciliation, common humanity, group solidarity, its key belief is that motho ke motho ba batho babangwe/umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu meaning a person can only be a person through others (JY Mokgoro 1999) in Nguni, one of South Africa languages. In other words, I exist so you exist. It is in my view the opposite of  cogito ergo sum of Descartes insisting in the I: the mark of egoism. A catholic bishop of Rwanda expressed it like this: “Njye, Njewe, Njenyine” (I, myself, only me) (Jean-Pierre Karegeye  2015). The I is the center of all universe in this sens. 

 

According to Gathogo,  Ubuntu as  concept is found in many communities of Africa.  Its equivalent in Kikuyu is expressed by Mundu ni mundu ni undu wa andu, meaning a human being is a person because of the other people. In  Sotho it is expressed by Motho ke motho ka batho ba bang, and in Shona of Zimbabwe by munhu munhu nekuda kwevanhu, meaning the same thing.

The Zulu expressed it by  izandla ziyagezana, to say that the left hand washes the right hand and the opposite is also true (Mashau T.D and Kgatle M.S. 2019; JY Mokgoro 1999).

 

In DR Congo, the philosopher Tshiamalenga Ntumba elaborated the notion of bisoite. From Lingala Biso meaning the  personal pronoun We, Bisoism or bisoite is the attitude which gives the primacy of consists in posing not in terms of Cartesian I, but in terms of We: We think that, We recommend that ... The subject I does not  disappearance , drowned in the We, it is a force, a union of many "I's" capable of assuming the conjugation of multiple efforts in a communicational process, where the correctness of words and attitudes favors a true consensus. This consensus is said to be true when it can promote the development of each "I", evolving as a link in a long chain (humanity, group of men, fraternity, families, or any other human institution). In the field of politics it becomes a bisocracy, the power of us ( Jules Ngubu 2014). A shift in philosophy language and perception of power.

Respect of individuality not individualism is recognized and competition for the well being of the community is not excluded.

In this context, perpetual dialog, consultation of others and accountability are required.

 

Some scholars propose the usefulness of engaging art-based methods in the process of capacity building to bring spirit of  novelty and promote engagement.

Taylor et al. (2002) think that the use of storytelling could be a useful vehicle in the social construction of meaning and good to bring an aesthetic perspective to organizational research, practice or learning ( Vanessa Iwowo 2016).

 

According to Judah Ndiku et al. (nd) After so many years of corruption and poverty, Africa is now widely perceived as a continent on the rise. Africa has seen three generations of leaders with each generation leaving behind a different legacy.

The first generation was the leaders who brought independence to Africa such as Julius Nyerere from Tanzania, Jomo Kenyatta from Kenya,  Kwame Nkrumah from Ghana, ,  Haile Sellasie from Ethiopia,  Abdel Nasser from Egypt and many others. They  fighted against colonialism.

The second generation of the leaders are those who came just after the independency fathers but had a negative impact on Africa like Mobutu Sese Seko in  the Congo , Idi Amin of Uganda...

Generation three is the leaders who have emerged in the last 15 years such as Ellen Johnson Sirleaf of Liberia, Nelson R. Mandela…

A new generation of leaders is about to happen to bring development and well being  to Africa.

 

 

A.    Training shift

 

For   Kabuaya Banza (2013) a high level of ethical behaviour must be expected from

 

leaders, as they are expected to bring transformation. Spirituality of leaders is

 

among  key factors for their behaviours. Unfortunately, these elements are neglected

 

in leadership training or development. Training in this sense is to be understood also

 

as empowerment. Empowering has many aspects such as sociopolitical, psychological for the horizontalization of leaders for example, intellectual and spiritual., intellectual empowerment is about different training to have habilitation and capabilities for effectiveness in leadership.  Spiritual empowerment relates to the action of Holy Spirit (Kabuaya Banza 2013).

The author does not distinguish religious conversion and spiritual one. In empowerment it is not only question of receiving power to have capabilities but also to be free, to have victory upon evil spirits.

 

 

B.      Draft for leadership school

 

I. Justification of the project

 

I made an investigation in websites of some higher schools and universities in DR

 

Congo curricula  supposed to train future leaders especially in the field of economics

 

and political science. I found the curricula of economics faculty in UNILU ( University

 

of Lubumbashi), the second biggest university of country,  the curricula of

 

the department of political science in the UNIKIN ( University of Kinshasa, the

 

biggest university of DR Congo) and the curricula of law faculty in Mbujimayi

 

university.

 

There are many courses, but not a course about leadership.

 

And the higher schools in DR Congo are again in old system, they have difficult to

 

shift in LMD system.

 

A special mention is to be made to University of Nations Academy which is a  private

 

school with many innovations in the educational philosophy and praxis.

 

 

This is  here downloaded the curricula of economics faculty of Unilu:

 

CYCLE DE GRADUAT

 

Première année

1.       La comptabilité générale

2.      Les documents commerciaux et mathématiques financières

3.      Les mathématiques générales 1

4.     La statistique descriptive

5.      La sociologie générale et africaine

6.     Le droit

7.      La psychologie générale

8.      L’anglais, expression orale et écrite

9.     L’informatique

10.  L’éducation à la citoyenneté

11.     L’initiation à la recherche scientifique

12.   L’économie politique 1

13.   La philosophie et logique

 

Deuxième année

1.       La géographie économique et l’économie de transport

2.      La statistique mathématique

3.      L’économie des pays en développement

4.     La comptabilité des sociétés

5.      Le droit commercial

6.     La théorie générale de management

7.      La méthode de recherche en sciences sociales

8.      L’informatique ; sujet de gestion et de bases de données

9.     La démographie

10.  Le français : rapport économiques et correspondance commerciale

11.     L’histoire du Congo et de l’Afrique

12.   La mathématique générale 2

13.   L’économie politique

 

 

 

Troisième année

1.       La comptabilité analytique et budgétaire

2.      Les finances publiques

3.      L’histoire économique

4.     La comptabilité nationale

5.      L’entreprenariat et petite et moyenne entreprise

6.     Les méthodes quantitatives de l’économie

7.      L’informatique appliquée

8.      L’analyse financière

9.     La gestion des ressources humaines

10.  L’économie monétaire générale

11.     L’économie rurale générale

12.   La gestion financière

13.   La gestion marketing

14.   La gestion de la production

15.   Le stage d’un mois

16.   La rédaction et la défense d’un travail de fin de cycle

 

CYCLE DE LICENCE

 

OPTION : SCIENCES ECONOMIQUES

 

Première année

 

Matières communes

1.       La microéconomie et la macroéconomie

2.      L’économétrie

3.      La théorie de l’échange international

4.     Les fluctuations et la croissance économiques

5.      Les théories et doctrines économiques et sociales

6.     L’économie du développement et la planification du développement économique

7.      La recherche opérationnelle

8.      La population, l’environnement et le développement

9.     La théorie et la pratique des sondages

10.  La nature de l’Etat et le système socio-économique

11.     Les théories de la croissance

 

Orientation : économie publique

1.       La théorie de l’économie publique

2.      L’économie de la santé et l’économie de l’éducation

3.      Le droit fiscal

4.     La théorie de l’administration publique

5.      Le séminaire de l’économie industrielle 1

 

Orientation : économie industrielle

1.       L’histoire comparée et les théories de l’industrialisation

2.      La technique industrielle

3.      La théorie et l’analyse de la production industrielle.

4.     Les stratégies industrielles des firmes multinationales

5.      Le séminaire de l’économie industrielle 1

 

Orientation : économie internationale

1.       Les relations économiques internationales

2.      L’organisation et le financement du commerce international

3.      Le droit fiscal international

4.     Les entreprises multinationales

5.      Un séminaire d’économie internationale 1

 

Orientation : économie mathématique

1.       Les statistiques approfondies

2.      La théorie et les pratiques des prévisions

3.      La théorie de l’équilibre générale (modèles)

4.     Un séminaire d’économie mathématique 1

5.      Les modèles de croissance économique

 

Orientation : Economie monétaire

1.       La politique monétaire

2.      L’économie bancaire et la comptabilité bancaire

3.      Le management bancaire

4.     L’économie monétaire internationale

5.      Un séminaire d’économie monétaire 1

 

Orientation : économie rurale

1.       La théorie de la production agricole et les statistiques agricole

2.      La comptabilité et la gestion des exploitations agricoles

3.      La sociologie rurale

4.     Les techniques de recherche en économie agricole

5.      Un séminaire d’économie rurale

 

 

Orientation : Economie de développement

1.       La théorie de la production agricole et les statistiques agricoles

2.      L’histoire comparée de l’industrialisation

3.      Les indicateurs du développement durable

4.     Les techniques quantitatives de planification

5.      Le séminaire d’économie de développement 1

 

Deuxième année

 

Matières communes

1.       L’analyse des structures et des suets économiques

2.      La politique économique

3.      La préparation et l’évaluation des projets

4.     Des questions spéciales d’économie internationale

5.      Les organisations régionales et sous-régionales en Afrique

6.     L’éthique et la déontologie professionnelle

7.      L’économie du travail

8.      Un stage de deux mois

9.     La rédaction et la défense d’un mémoire

 

Orientation : économie publique

1.       La comptabilité publique

2.      Un séminaire d’économie publique 2

3.      L’analyse approfondie des finances publiques

4.     Les questions des entreprises publiques

5.      Les marchés publics

6.     La gestion des espaces urbains dans les pays en voie de développement

 

 

Orientation : économie de développement

1.       Un séminaire d’économie de développement 2

2.      La typologie des économies sous développées

3.      Les stratégies et politiques de développement

4.     Des questions spéciales et la coopération au développement

5.      Les théories et les techniques de l’animation du développement

 

Orientation : économie industrielle

1.       Un séminaire d’économie industrielle 2

2.      La sociologie industrielle

3.      L’économie de l’énergie

4.     Les questions spéciales d’intégration industrielle en Afrique

 

 

Orientation : économie internationale

1.       Des questions spéciales des échanges commerciaux intra-africains

2.      Un séminaire d’économie internationale 2

3.      Les théories approfondies des relations économiques internationales

4.     Les finances internationales

5.      Les questions de l’intégration économique africaine

6.     Les institutions et marches financiers internationaux

 

Orientation : économie mathématique

1.       Les modèles macro-économiques

2.      Les théories des jeux et des applications à l’analyse économique

3.      Les techniques quantitatives de planification

4.     L’économétrie approfondie

5.      Un séminaire d’économie mathématique2

 

Orientation : économie monétaire

1.       Des questions monétaires des pays en voire de développement

2.      Les institutions et marché financier internationaux

3.      Le séminaire d’économie monétaire 2

4.     La gestion des institutions financières congolaises

5.      Des questions spéciales en théories monétaire

 

Orientation : économie rurale

1.       Des questions spéciales de sécurité alimentaire dans les pays en voie de développements

2.      Un séminaire d’économie rural 2

3.      La politique agricole et alimentaire

4.     Des questions spéciales d’économie rurale congolaise

5.      De questions relatives à l’aide et au commerce

 

OPTION : GESTION

 

Première année

Matières communes

1.       La recherche opérationnelle

2.      L’économétrie

3.      La statistique appliquée à la gestion

4.     La microéconomie et la macroéconomie

5.      La théorie de l’échange international

6.     La conjoncture et l’entreprise

7.      Le droit

8.      La population, l’environnement et le développement

9.     L’informatique de gestion

 

Orientation : gestion de la production

1.       La technologie industrielle

2.      Les produits commerçables

3.      Les implantations et les manutentions

4.     La métrologie et la normalisation

5.      Un séminaire de gestion de la production1

 

Orientation : gestion du commerce extérieur

1.       La législation et la pratique douanière

2.      L’organisation et le financement du commerce international

3.      Le droit maritime et le droit aérien

4.     Le marketing international

5.      Un séminaire de commerce extérieur 1

 

Orientation : gestion financière

1.       La gestion des institutions financières congolaises

2.      L’économie financière

3.      Les systèmes comptables comparés

4.     La gestion financière internationale

5.      Un séminaire de gestion financière 1

 

Orientation : gestion des ressources humaines

1.       La classification des empois et la rémunération

2.      L’économie du travail

3.      La psychosociologie des organisations

4.     Un séminaire des ressources humaines 1

5.      Les relations industrielles

 

Orientation : le Marketing

1.       Les méthodes de recherche en marketing

2.      Le marketing stratégique

3.      L’analyse du comportement du consommateur

4.     Le marketing international

5.      Un séminaire de gestion de la production 1

 

Deuxième année

 

Matières communes

1.       La préparation et l’évaluation des projets

2.      La théorie et la pratique des sondages

3.      L’éthique et la déontologie professionnelle

4.     Des questions d’économie internationale

5.      Le contrôle de gestion et l’audit

6.     La politique d’entreprise

7.      La fiscalité et la gestion de l’entreprise

 

Orientation : gestion de la production

1.       Un séminaire de gestion de la production 2

2.      Des questions spéciales de gestion de la production

3.      Les technologies adaptées.

 

Orientation : gestion des ressources humaines

1.       Un séminaire de gestion des ressources humaines 2

2.      La législation sociale et la sécurité sociale

3.      Des questions spéciales de développement des ressources humaines

 

Orientation : gestion du commerce extérieur

1.       Un séminaire de gestion du commerce extérieur 2

2.      Les entreprises multinationales

3.      Droit international

 

Orientation : gestion financière

1.       La législation et les pratiques d’assurance

2.      Un séminaire de gestion financière 2

3.      La théorie mathématique des assurances

 

Orientation : marketing

1.       Un séminaire de marketing 2

2.      L’analyse économique de la distribution

3.      La communication marketing

Source : http://www.unilu.ac.cd/

 

 

This is the curricula of political science in the University of Kinshasa :

 

Cycle de Graduat

 

Première année

 

1    La science politique       

 

2    La science administrative   

 

3    Le droit                  

 

4    La sociologie générale     

 

5    L’histoire politique et administrative de la R.D.Congo

 

6    La géographie économique et humaine

 

7    L’initiation au travail scientifique

 

8    Les mathématiques appliquées aux sciences sociales 

 

9    La philosophie et la logique

 

10   La psychologie            

 

11   L’éducation à la citoyenneté 

 

12   Les statistiques           

 

Deuxième année

 

1    Les théories et doctrines  politiques et sociales

 

2    Les relations internationales 

 

3    Les institutions administratives de la R.D.Congo

 

4    La comptabilité générale   

 

5    Le droit administratif      

 

6    Le droit constitutionnel et institutions politiques

 

7    L’économie politique       

 

8    Les finances publiques      

 

9    La rédaction et correspondance administrative

 

10   comptabilité nationale     

 

11   Les méthodes de recherche en Sciences Sociales

 

12   L’histoire politique de la R.D.Congo

 

Troisième année

 

1    La sociologie politique     

 

2    L’institution politique de la RDC

 

3    Les grands services publics

 

4    Le droit international public 

 

5    Les théories des organisations

 

6    La législation fiscale et douanière

 

7    L’aménagement du territoire Le 

 

8    Le droit du travail et de la sécurité sociale 

 

9    L’administration et gestion des ressources humaines

 

10   L’économie et développement

 

11   L’étude des cas ou Administration publique

 

12      La rédaction et la défense d’un travail de fin de cycle

        

13      Un stage d’un mois

     

Cycle de licence

 

Orientations : 1. Science politique

 

Première année

 

A. Matières communes

 

1    Les systèmes politiques comparés 

 

2    Les séminaires de  science politique 

 

3    L’analyse des politiques publiques

 

4    L’anthropologie politique

 

5    Le droit pénal et procédure pénale

 

6    Les domaines et problèmes sectoriels de l’administration publique

 

7    Les méthodologies de la science politique

 

8    Des questions spéciales de la sociologie politique

 

B. Matières à option : Choisir deux matières parmi les

 

suivantes :

 

a)La communication politique

 

b)La géographie politique

 

 c)Les systèmes juridiques comparés

 

  d)Les théories des relations internationales

 

 e)La planification        

 

f)Les systèmes politiques des pays africains

 

Deuxième année

1    L’éthique et déontologie professionnelle

 

2    Les mouvements des capitaux et sociétés multinationales

 

3    Les organisations internationales

 

4    L’aménagement du territoire

 

5    Les aspects politiques et administratifs du développement

 

6    La géopolitique           

 

7    La prospective politique    

 

8    La rédaction et défense d’un mémoire

   

9    Stage d’un mois                  -

 

B. Matières spécifiques : choisir trois cours parmi les suivants :

 

a)La conception et administration des projets

 

 b)Le droit international privé

 

 c)Les théories monétaires et bancaires

 

d)L’économie financière

  

Orientation : 2. Science Administrative

 

Première année

 

A. Matières obligatoire

 

1    Les systèmes politiques comparés

 

2    Les systèmes administratifs comparés

 

3    L’analyse des politiques publiques

 

4    L’anthropologie politique

 

5    L’anthropologie  politique

 

6    Les domaines et problèmes sectoriels de l’administration

 

7    La méthodologie et épistémologie de la science politique

 

8    Les principes de gestion des entreprises

 

B.Matières spécifiques : choisir deux cours parmi les suivants :

 

a)La macro économie      

 

 b)La déontologie et administration des affaires

 

 c)La recherche opérationnelle

 

d)La conception et administration des projets

 

  e)L’administration des villes de la RDC et l’Afrique

 

 

 

 

Deuxième année

 

A. Matières obligatoire

 

1    L’éthique et déontologie professionnelle

      

2    Les mouvements des capitaux et sociétés multinationales

      

3    Les organisations internationales

      

4    L’aménagement du territoire

      

5    Les aspects politiques et administratifs du développement

      

 

6    L’initiation à l’esprit d’entreprise

      

7    Des questions spéciales de droit administratif

      

8    La rédaction et défense d’un mémoire

 

Source : DocPlayer.fr 2021/Programme des cours Département : Sciences Politiques et

Administratives.

Where is course such as political leadership ?

 

This is downloaded the curricula of law faculty in Mbujimayi university.

 

PREMIER GRADUAT DROIT
N°	INTITULE DE COURS			H.TH		H.P.		V.H.
1	Critique historique			15		0		15
2	Droit civil I/Personnes			60		15		75
3	Droit constitutionnel			75		15		90
4	Droit économique			30		15		45
5	Education à la citoyenneté			30		0		30
6	Economie Politique			45		15		60
7	Expression orale et écrite/français			30		0		30
8	Histoire des idées et des faits économiques			45		0		45
9	Introduction à la Science Politique			30		0		30
10	Introduction générale à l’étude du droit			60		30		90
11	Logique + Argumentation juridique			30		15		45
12	Organisation et compétence  judiciaires			30		15		45
13	Philosophie Générale			30		0		30
14	Psychologie générale			30		0		30
15	Sociologie et anthropologie.			30		0		30
16	Anglais juridique			45		0		45
	TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE			615		120		735
DEUXIEME GRADUAT DROIT
N°		INTITULE DE COURS	H.TH		H.P.		V.H.
1		Comptabilité générale	30		15		45
2		Criminologie	30		0		30
3		Droit civil II/Biens	60		15		75
4		Droit civil III/Obligations	75		15		90
5		Droit Pénal Général	45		15		60
6		Droit, Structure et Institutions Trad.Afric.	30		15		45
7		Finances publiques	45		15		60
8		Informatique	15		15		30
9		Droit constitutionnel congolais	45		15		60
10		Législation en matières économiques	30		15		45
11		Initiation à la recherche scientifique	45		15		60
12		Procédure pénale	45		15		60
13		Contentieux constitutionnel	30		0		30
		TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE	525		165		690

 

TROISIEME GRADUAT DROIT  PRIVE ET JUDICIAIRE
N°	INTITULE DE COURS	H.TH	H.P.	V.H.
1	Droit Administratif	75	15	90
2	Droit commercial général	45	15	60
3	Droit International Public	75	15	90
4	Droit financier	30	15	45
5	Droit pénal spécial	45	15	60
6	Procédure civile	60	15	75
7	Principaux Contrats usuels	45	15	60
8	Droit de l’enfant	45	30	75
9	Rédaction et correspondance administratives	30	15	45
10	Evolution du droit de la famille	30	15	45
11	Administration de la preuve	30	15	45
12	Séminaire de Droit privé.	0	30	30
	TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE	510	210	720

 

TROISIEME GRADUAT DROIT  ECONOMIQUE ET SOCIAL
N°	INTITULE DE COURS	H.TH	H.P.	V.H.
1	Droit Administratif	75	15	90
2	Droit commercial général	45	15	60
3	Droit International Public	75	15	90
4	Droit financier	30	15	45
5	Droit pénal spécial	45	15	60
6	Procédure civile	60	15	75
7	Contrats usuels	45	15	60
8	Droit de l’enfant	45	30	75
9	Droit agricole et forestier	30	15	45
10	Droit minier	30	15	45
11	Droit pénal économique	30	15	45
12	Séminaire de Droit économique	0	30	30
	TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE	510	210	720

 

TROISIEME GRADUAT DROIT  PUBLIC
N°	INTITULE DE COURS	H.TH	H.P.	V.H.
1	Droit Administratif	75	15	90
2	Droit commercial général	45	15	60
3	Droit International Public	75	15	90
4	Droit financier	30	15	45
5	Droit pénal spécial	45	15	60
6	Procédure civile	60	15	75
7	Contrats usuels	45	15	60
8	Droit de l’enfant	45	30	75
9	Rédaction et correspondance administratives	30	15	45
10	Evolution des institutions administratives du Congo	30	15	45
11	Droit et pratiques diplomatiques et consulaires	30	15	45
12	Séminaire de Droit public	0	30	30
	TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE			720

 

PREMIERE LICENCE DROIT PRIVE & JUDICIAIRE
N°	INTITULE DE COURS	H.TH	H.P.	V.H.
1	Grands  Services Publics de l’Etat	60	15	75
2	Droit fiscal	75	15	90
3	Droit des sociétés	60	15	75
4	Contrats commerciaux	30	15	45
5	Organisations Internationales	45	15	60
6	Droit communautaire africain	30	0	30
7	Droit du Travail et de la Sécurité Sociale	90	15	105
8	Droit coutumier	45	15	60
9	Droit civil IV/ Surêtés	30	0	30
10	Progrès Techniques et Responsabilité Civile	30	15	45
11	Domaine de l’Etat, Aménagement du terr.	30	15	45
12	Droit Pénal International	30	15	45
13	Séminaire de Droit privé.	0	30	30
	TOTAL VOLUME HORAIRE	555	180	735

 

PREMIERE LICENCE DROIT PUBLIC
N°	INTITULE DE COURS		H.TH	H.P.	V.H.
1	Grands Services Publics de l’Etat		60	15	75
2	Droit fiscal		75	15	90
3	Droit des sociétés		60	15	75
4	Contrats commerciaux		30	15	45
5	Organisations Internationales		45	15	60
6	Droit communautaire africain		30	0	30